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"Adaptability is not imitation. It means power of resistance and assimilation."
- Mahatma Gandhi

Psychology of Survival [FM21-76c2] It takes much more than the knowledge and skills to build shelters, get food, make fires, and travel without the aid of standard navigational devices to live successfully through a survival situation. Some people with little or no survival training have managed to survive life-threatening circumstances. Some people with survival training have not used their skills and died. A key ingredient in any survival situation is the mental attitude of the individual(s) involved. Having survival skills is important; having the will to survive is essential. Without a desk to survive, acquired skills serve little purpose and invaluable knowledge goes to waste. Also available HERE and HERE and HERE and HERE or download the PDF File

The Attitude of Survival - A brief guide to the mental side of dealing with unexpected survival situations.

Positive Psychology of POW Survival In recent years, American military leaders have realized that mental readiness is just as important as physical training. They also want to prepare their soldiers psychologically so that they are more likely to survive when captured by the enemy.

The Seven Components of Self-defense Building Blocks of an Effective Personal Safety Strategy by Randy LaHaie: The study of self-defense cannot be easily defined with quick, easy, and over simplistic solutions. Acquiring a legitimate sense of control over your personal safety requires knowledge and skills in seven key components. Neglect any of them, and you do not have a complete and effective safety strategy.

SURVIVAL PSYCHOLOGY AND DISASTERS (Scroll down for ARTICLE) Why do some people seem to bounce back from disaster situations with less stress and more positive energy than others? What characteristics differentiate these groups? Do post-disaster interventions make a difference in resilience and adaptability? Does previous experience with disasters, adversity and/or crisis situations make a difference in survivability and resilience? These and other related questions and the responses to them can assist mental health and other disaster professionals and first responders in more adequately planning how to respond more effectively to such events.

Aron Ralston - Between a Rock and the Hardest Place "Survivors rapidly read reality," says Siebert. "When something horrible happens, they immediately accept the situation for what it is and consciously decide that they will do everything in their power to get through it." That is, they have the ability to rationally accept dreadful circumstances without becoming angry or passive, two common responses to extreme stress.

Surviving an off Airport Landing by Rick Russon: A study in survival psychology shows that, in an emergency situation, 10-15% of people will react appropriately, 75% have to be told what to do, and 10-15% will react totally inappropriately.

Surviving Sudden Loss The death of a loved one is painful enough but when death is sudden and combined with the loss of home, community and security, as during a natural disaster like Hurricane Katrina, it doubles our pain and intensifies the grief. Mourning and recovery are more difficult for surviving family members, regardless of their age. Many survivors will be in denial of the tragedy, some for a very long time. [Link updated 4/9/11]

Dealing with Stress It’s normal to have difficulty managing your feelings after major tragedies. Because everyone experiences stress differently, don’t compare yourself with others around you or judge other people’s reactions and emotions.

Helping Children Cope Children respond differently to disaster, depending on their understanding and maturity, but it’s easy to see how an event like Hurricane Katrina could leave a child feeling a good deal of anxiety. Kids who lived in the track of the hurricane felt firsthand the threat of danger to themselves and those they care about. Now that the danger has passed, it’s important to comfort your children and reassure them that they’re safe. It’s also important to be open and honest with them in discussing unseen consequences of the hurricane for your family. (pdf) [Link recovered 4/9/11 - now hosted on site!]

Blueprint for Responding to Public Mental Health Needs in Times of Crisis The shocking events of September 11, 2001 served as a “wake-up call” to the nation, driving home how vulnerable all of its citizens are to unforeseen and unheralded disasters. As a result, we have learned a hard lesson: State and local mental health systems are largely unprepared to respond effectively to events that traumatize communities.

Messages for helping children during a time of crisis Children look to adults for reassurance and guidance on how to react. What adults say and do can help distance children from the sense of threat, help them work through their emotions, and maintain or regain a sense of normalcy....

Emotional damage from natural disasters can add to stress levels long after the crisis is over The emotional damage of droughts, floods and other natural disasters can be felt long after the immediate crisis is over, according to a licensed clinical social worker at the University of Missouri. Families should watch the signs of stress and depression, and get help if needed...

Coping With Catastrophe | THIS OLD HOUSE From burglaries to fires to trees falling on your house, how to handle five common household nightmares.

Family Matters: Coping With Catastrophe Face realities and begin doing something about them. One widow cried "Why me?" the day a natural disaster took the life of her husband and father of five children. Ultimately she had to conclude, "But it is me. So, what an I going to do about it?" She determined to get busy and do something about her situation. Doing nothing only makes things worse. [Link updated 4/9/11]

Coping With Catastrophe No place on Earth is perfectly safe. Often there's no way to know where and when natural disasters will occur, and no way to prevent them. But, around the world, millions of people live in danger zones. From Asian island dwellers who live in the shadows of active volcanoes, to Californians perched on top of earthquake-prone faults, to Caribbean fishermen moored to coastlines regularly ravaged by deadly storms, millions of people seem to invite catastrophe.

"Stress" Chapter 21 from the NOLS Wilderness Med. Book - Contains vital info on psychology of survival for both the rescuer and survivor. Includes recognition, reactions, treatment & management. Must read for any group leader!!

Post Disaster Stress Management (Report following Hurricane Keith in Belize, SA) The  objectives were: To provide effective counseling for individuals affected directly or indirectly by a disaster in order to prevent or alleviate any psychological problems; To be psychologically equipped to cope in the healthiest way possible; To conduct an assessment of the mental health needs of post-disaster survivors.

Insights Into The Concept Of Stress The repeated exposure of emergency response personnel to disaster situations have a potentially deleterious effect on their psychological well-being, what can greatly affect the overall outcome of such situations, including the prognosis of the primary victims of the event. This workbook and its companion, Stress Management in Disasters, were designed to provide the basic training material for persons who will be providing such a service.

Stress Management In Disasters Along with its companion workbook, Insights into the Concept of Stress, this book was designed to provide the basic training material for persons who will be providing assistance in disaster situations, because they are themselves repeatedly exposed to very stressful situations.

Disaster Psychiatry: Principles and Practice. [Citation not given, but similar to "Psychiatric dimensions of disaster: patient care, community consultation, and preventive medicine, originally published in the Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 1995, 3(4), 196-209.] Robert Ursano and colleagues discuss the role of psychiatrists in disasters including identifying disaster responses. This article summarizes psychological and physiological responses to disasters, and compares Acute Stress Disorder (ASD) and PTSD with various other disorders related to disaster. The authors discuss disaster responses in adults, children, and communities. They then describe the importance of identifying high-risk groups in the stricken community, early / subsequent interventions, and ways to get involved in disaster psychiatry. (pdf) [Link recovered 4/9/11 - now hosted on site!]

Post-traumatic Therapy. Originally appeared in Psychotherapy, 28 (1), 5-15. [Spring 1991] Republished first in Wilson & Raphael's (1993) International Handbook of Traumatic Stress Syndromes and later in Everly & Lating's (1995) Psychotraumatology. This clinical article gives a detailed description of Frank Ochberg's approach towards therapy with trauma patients, and should be helpful to any clinicians working with this population. Individual sections discuss fundamental principles and techniques of posttraumatic therapy, including: education, discussing psychobiology, promoting holistic health, and psychotherapy. Two Appendices list proposed diagnostic criteria and symptoms for victimization disorder as a subcategory of traumatic stress.

Introduction to Survival Strategies. This is a version of an important chapter from Valent's 1998 book, From Survival to Fulfillment: A framework for the life-trauma dialectic, published in Philadelphia by Bruner/Mazel. Paul Valent describes eight survival strategies in response to trauma -- "stress responses which include specific adaptive and maladaptive, biological, psychological and social constituents". Valent's survival strategies evolved as discrete phylogenetic templates to aid survival following specific stressors. Together, survival strategies offer a framework for categorizing classes of traumatic responses and events beyond PTSD's typical fight or flight responses. When trauma responses are unsuccessful, this framework may also help clarify differences important in treatment. (pdf) [Link recovered 4/9/11 - now hosted on site!]

Questions to Help Children Talk About a Disaster "open-ended" questions to encourage children to talk about their feelings and experiences following a disaster.

Tips for Teachers

Disasters hit children hard. It is difficult for them to understand and accept that there are events in their lives that cannot be predicted or controlled. Perhaps worst of all, we as adults cannot "fix" a disaster, solve it, or keep it from happening again.

As a classroom teacher, you can play an important role in the healing process of children who are affected by a disaster. One technique you can use to help children cope and heal is to assist them in expressing their experiences and feelings by talking. This technique works best when you use "open-ended" questions that require more than a "yes" or "no" answer. There are many leading questions you can use to encourage children to talk, such as:

• Where were you and what were you doing when the disaster happened?
• What was your first thought when it happened?
• What did other people around you do during/after the disaster?
• Was anyone you know hurt or killed?
• Did/do you dream about the disaster?
• What reminds you of the disaster?
• What do you do differently since the disaster?
• How do you feel now?
• How have you gotten through rough times before?
• What, if anything, would you do differently if this happened again?

As the children begin to open up, encourage various views. Acknowledge their experiences and reassure them that what they are feeling is "normal." Play a guiding role, rather than trying to control the discussions.

Allow children with low language skills, shyness, or discomfort to be silent. It might be helpful to encourage peer support for these children. If a child has limited English-language skills, consider asking for a translator to help the child express him/herself. Create an atmosphere in which a child can feel comfortable sharing experiences and feelings in any language. The goal of the process is to help children feel better. If any of your students show serious signs of distress, consult a school counselor or mental health professional.

When Talking Doesn't Help: Other Ways to Help Children Express Their Feelings Following a Disaster

While many children begin to heal by talking about their experiences and feelings following a disaster, talking for some children is not helpful. In some cultures, for example, talking openly is not comfortable, appropriate, or even "polite." Some children have been raised in families or situations where talking about one's feelings was not possible, supported, or practiced. Other children simply prefer not to discuss their feelings openly, due to the nature of their personality, worries about privacy, or a lack of trust in the process.

To help children through the recovery process, begin by informing and educating them about the disaster to make it less threatening. Point out that there are many ways other than talking to express feelings. The suggestions listed below should be presented to the child as options, not as required activities:

• Use puppets to help children "tell" or "live" a story.
• Read stories from children's books related to rescue and recovery efforts.
• Introduce drawing as a way of "talking silently." Encourage children to draw people, places, and activities they associate with the disaster.
• Write a book together and draw pictures to illustrate it.
• Create a skit or play, or do role-playing, related to the disaster. Provide clothes for children to "dress up" in to play the role of emergency workers seen during the disaster.
• Create a collage. Have children cut and paste photos, magazine pictures, articles, and fabric pieces around a central theme. Tell children they may draw what they cannot find in magazines. Collages are a safe form of art because a child gets to use others' symbols.
• Draw a mural or make a quilt that tells a "collective story." Murals and quilts promote teamwork. They also feel safer for some children than individual art. When creating a mural or quilt:
  • Role of religion and/or spirituality in everyday life.
  • Body language, personal interaction, and boundaries regarding personal space.
  • As the teacher, you should do very little drawing.
  • Allow children to tell you what to draw.
  • Give it a place of honor in the classroom.
  • Hang it in a place where children can see and add to it every day.
  • Make it an ongoing project.
  • Take photos when it is finished.

  Allow a full range of expression during these activities. Provide reassurance that there is no "right way" to do them. Exercise as little control as possible. Emphasize to the children that their creations will not be judged or graded. Don't exhibit writing and artwork if a child does not want to share it with others. When these activities are over, allow children to talk about them if they want to. Discussion can help to bring closure to the experiences and feelings related to the disaster, which is an important step in the process of healing. Other children will find closure by listening to their peers.

  Every classroom should also have a suggestion box - a place where children can drop notes, questions, and concerns for the teacher to address. Make the box available at all times. As a teacher, you should address each concern in some way. Your classroom should also have a file or bulletin board of information to educate the children further about disasters. This file or bulletin board should be in a place where children always have access to it. Encourage children to add to the information. By using some of these techniques and adding some of your own, you can play an important role in helping children to recover from the trauma related to a disaster. If these classroom activities reveal clues to more serious problems, issues, or feelings within a child, ask a school counselor or mental health specialist for help.

  The Role of Culture in Helping Children Recover from a Disaster

  As a teacher, you no doubt recognize the importance of understanding and appreciating cultural differences and similarities within racial and ethnic groups. Recognizing these differences and similarities can be especially important when helping children to recover from a disaster. To be effective in the classroom, it is helpful to learn the skills that enable you to interact with persons of other cultures in ways that demonstrate knowledge, respect, and sensitivity.

  Generally, by culture we mean the values, traditions, norms, customs, arts, history, folklore, and other institutions shared by a group of people. Culture shapes how people see their world and structure their community and family life. A person's cultural affiliation often determines the person's values and attitudes about disasters and ways to cope and heal.

  Culture is important to all of us. As Americans, we all share elements of a "national" culture, such as baseball, hot dogs, high school marching bands, and Fourth of July celebrations.

  Many Americans also carry the gifts and strengths of other cultural traditions. We are African Americans, Asian Americans/Pacific Islanders, Hispanics/Latinos, American Indians/Alaska Natives, European Americans, Creoles, Cajuns, and mixtures of many races and ethnicities. We play soccer, eat tacos, listen to reggae, dance at powwows, and march in parades on the Chinese New Year.

  Cultural differences are traditionally seen in these general areas:

  • The importance of the individual versus the family or the community.
  • Generally accepted roles for women, men, and children.
  • The structure of the family, whether it is a nuclear or extended family.
  • The role of folk wisdom, life experience, mother wit, and common sense compared to formal education and scientific knowledge.
  • Ways that wealth and status are measured, whether it be in material goods like money and property, or in personal relationships like children, extended family support systems, and friendships.
  • Views on youth or age. For example, a culture may revere its youth as the promise of the future or its elders as the repositories of wisdom.
  • Whether people are bound by tradition or open to experimentation.
  • Role of religion and/or spirituality in everyday life.
  • Body language, personal interaction, and boundaries regarding personal space.
  • Traditional foods and food customs.
  • Style of dress.
  • Musical preferences, such as rap, heavy metal, jazz, and salsa.
  • Holidays and festivals celebrated.
  • Favorite sports and sports figures.
  • Media choices, including newspapers, television, radio, and magazines.
  • Leisure time activities.
  • Dating rituals.

  Keep in mind that these are broad cultural differences and that there are also many differences within groups and between individuals. Individual members of any particular culture vary considerably from general norms within that culture. Also, a group's culture is continually evolving, based on interaction with the mainstream society and other groups.

  Although race and ethnicity are the most obvious components of culture, there are many factors that shape a person's values, ideas, attitudes, and experiences. These include age, gender, sexual orientation, level of education, occupation, income, geographic location, preferred language, health status, urban vs. rural location, native versus foreign-born status, and customs, beliefs, and practices. As a culturally competent teacher, it is important to take all of these factors into account.

  As you interact with students from diverse cultural and ethnic backgrounds, there are some general thoughts to keep in mind:

  • Acknowledge culture as a predominant force in shaping behaviors, values, and institutions.
  • Acknowledge and accept that cultural differences exist and have an impact on how you reach students.
  • Recognize that diversity within cultures is as important as diversity between cultures.
  • Respect the unique, culturally defined needs of various students.
  • Understand that people from different racial and ethnic groups and other cultural subgroups are generally best served by persons who are part of or in tune with their culture.
  • Recognize that incorporating the strengths of many cultures enhances the capacity of the whole group.

  The following tips may be especially helpful as you guide your students through the recovery process following a disaster:

  • Learn a child's "usual" behavior and cultural/ethnic responses to be able to identify "unusual" or problem behavior.
  • Create a comfortable atmosphere for verbal expression in any language. Consider asking for a translator to help a child with limited English-language skills.
  • Recognize that talking openly is not comfortable, appropriate, or even "polite" in some cultures.
  • Be aware that terms that refer to race and ethnicity often have both overt and hidden meanings. Whenever possible, use the descriptive term that is preferred by the majority of persons in a specific group.
  • Know that making eye contact is not accepted in some cultures. It is considered to be "defiant behavior" for some groups. In other cultures, particularly those with roots in Western Europe, lack of eye contact is seen as an indication that the person is being less than truthful.
  • When using drawing activities to help children express themselves, keep in mind that colors and shapes have various meanings to children from different cultures, and to different children within each culture.
  • Be aware that children from other cultures who have experienced loss, relocation, death, and war are at a particularly "high risk" of having serious problems after a disaster.
  • Understand that some ethnic populations are more likely than others to have flashbacks to other catastrophes. For example, Southeast Asians may associate loud noises with memories of bombings.
  • Consult a school counselor or mental health professional if any of your students show serious signs of distress.

How To Help Children After a Disaster offers tips to parents on how to talk to children about the terrorist events. [Link updated 4/9/11]

After Disaster: What Teens Can Do

Note: Information based on brochure developed by Project Heartland -- A Project of the Oklahoma Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse Services in response to the 1995 bombing of the Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City. Project Heartland was developed with funds from the Federal Emergency Management Agency in consultation with the Federal Center for Mental Health Services.

• Whether or not you were directly affected by a disaster or violent event, it is normal to feel anxious about your own safety, to picture the event in your own mind, and to wonder how you would react in an emergency.

• People react in different ways to trauma. Some become irritable or depressed, others lose sleep or have nightmares, others deny their feelings or simply "blank out" the troubling event.

• While it may feel better to pretend the event did not happen, in the long run it is best to be honest about your feelings and to allow yourself to acknowledge the sense of loss and uncertainty.

• It is important to realize that, while things may seem off balance for a while, your life will return to normal.

• It is important to talk with someone about your sorrow, anger, and other emotions, even though it may be difficult to get started.

• You may feel most comfortable talking about your feelings with a teacher, counselor, or church leader. The important thing is that you have someone you trust to confide in about your thoughts and feelings.

• It is common to want to strike back at people who have caused great pain. This desire comes from our outrage for the innocent victims. We must understand, though, that it is futile to respond with more violence. Nothing good is accomplished by hateful language or actions.

• While you will always remember the event, the painful feelings will decrease over time, and you will come to understand that, in learning to cope with tragedy, you have become stronger, more adaptable, and more self-reliant.

After a Disaster: A Guide for Parents and Teachers

Note: Information based on brochure developed by Project Heartland -- A Project of the Oklahoma Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse Services in response to the 1995 bombing of the Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City. Project Heartland was developed with funds from the Federal Emergency Management Agency in consultation with the Federal Center for Mental Health Services.

Natural disasters such as tornados, or man-made tragedies such as the bombing of the Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City, can leave children feeling frightened, confused, and insecure.

Whether a child has personally experienced trauma or has merely seen the event on television or heard it discussed by adults, it is important for parents and teachers to be informed and ready to help if reactions to stress begin to occur.

Children respond to trauma in many different ways. Some may have reactions very soon after the event; others may seem to be doing fine for weeks or months, then begin to show worrisome behavior. Knowing the signs that are common at different ages can help parents and teachers to recognize problems and respond appropriately.

Preschool Age

Children from one to five years in age find it particularly hard to adjust to change and loss. In addition, these youngsters have not yet developed their own coping skills, so they must depend on parents, family members, and teachers to help them through difficult times.

Very young children may regress to an earlier behavioral stage after a traumatic event. For example, preschoolers may resume thumbsucking or bedwetting or may become afraid of strangers, animals, darkness, or "monsters." They may cling to a parent or teacher or become very attached to a place where they feel safe.

Changes in eating and sleeping habits are common, as are unexplainable aches and pains. Other symptoms to watch for are disobedience, hyperactivity, speech difficulties, and aggressive or withdrawn behavior. Preschoolers may tell exaggerated stories about the traumatic event or may speak of it over and over.

Early Childhood

Children aged five to eleven may have some of the same reactions as younger boys and girls. In addition, they may withdraw from play groups and friends, compete more for the attention of parents, fear going to school, allow school performance to drop, become aggressive, or find it hard to concentrate. These children may also return to "more childish" behaviors; for example, they may ask to be fed or dressed.

Adolescence

Children twelve to fourteen are likely to have vague physical complaints when under stress and may abandon chores, school work, and other responsibilities they previously handled. While on the one hand they may compete vigorously for attention from parents and teachers, they may also withdraw, resist authority, become disruptive at home or in the classroom, or even begin to experiment with high-risk behaviors such as drinking or drug abuse. These young people are at a developmental stage in which the opinions of others are very important. They need to be thought of as "normal" by their friends and are less concerned about relating well with adults or participating in recreation or family activities they once enjoyed.

In later adolescence, teens may experience feelings of helplessness and guilt because they are unable to assume full adult responsibilities as the community responds to the disaster. Older teens may also deny the extent of their emotional reactions to the traumatic event.

How to Help

Reassurance is the key to helping children through a traumatic time. Very young children need a lot of cuddling, as well as verbal support. Answer questions about the disaster honestly, but don’t dwell on frightening details or allow the subject to dominate family or classroom time indefinitely. Encourage children of all ages to express emotions through conversation, drawing, or painting and to find a way to help others who were affected by the disaster.

Try to maintain a normal household or classroom routine and encourage children to participate in recreational activity. Reduce your expectations temporarily about performance in school or at home, perhaps by substituting less demanding responsibilities for normal chores.

Finally, acknowledge that you, too, may have reactions associated with the traumatic event, and take steps to promote your own physical and emotional healing.

KEN01-0093
Revised 10/02

A Guide For Older Adults

Senior citizens today are a sturdy, reliable generation. We have proven time and again our ability to survive everything from the Great Depression to world wars and the threat of nuclear holocaust. We are proud, tough and resilient.

However, when disaster strikes, we may find that we suddenly feel terrified...alone...and overwhelmingly vulnerable. These feelings of helplessness may frighten us even more.

Coping with personal trauma is a process that each person moves through differently. It helps to know that what we are feeling and the way we are behaving is quite normal under the circumstances. As we learn to understand what is happening to us, we can regain power over our lives and begin to heal.

• Physical reactions to a disaster are normal.
• Acknowledging our feelings helps us recover.
• Asking for what we need can help heal us.
• Focusing on our strengths and abilities will help.
• Accepting help from community programs is healthy.
• We each heal at our own pace.
• We each have different needs and different ways to cope.

It is important for older adults recovering from a disaster to talk about their feelings. Sharing their experiences with other disaster victims can help them to understand they are not alone. Also, becoming involved in the disaster recovery process and helping others to heal can be beneficial to the older adults own recovery. Older adults should be encouraged to ask for any type of help needed, such as financial, emotional, and medical assistance. Seeking assistance is a step toward recovery and independence. Older adults are a generation of survivors and with the proper support will become even stronger and more capable of facing future challenges.

 

DISASTER RESPONSE AND RECOVERY: A HANDBOOK FOR MENTAL HEALTH PROFESSIONALS by Diane Myers, R.N., M.S.N. Monterey, California

FEMA FOR KIDS: RESOURCES FOR TEACHERS -- How to Talk to Children about the Threat of Biological Warfare or Terrorist Attack While FEMA advocates discussing the threat of natural disaster with children, and emphasizing what actions they should take to protect themselves - getting under heavy furniture in the event of an earthquake, for example - it is often much more difficult to talk about the threat of biological warfare or terrorist attack. The following information is provided by Dr. Lennis G. Echterling; from the Department of Psychology at James Madison University, in Virginia.

Exercise Helps Keep Your Psyche Fit -- Research shows exercise to be a viable, cost-effective treatment for depression and may help in the treatment of other mental disorders.

Stress Management Stress is the "wear and tear" our bodies experience as we adjust to our continually changing environment; it has physical and emotional effects on us and can create positive or negative feelings. As a positive influence, stress can help compel us to action; it can result in a new awareness and an exciting new perspective. As a negative influence, it can result in feelings of distrust, rejection, anger, and depression, which in turn can lead to health problems such as headaches, upset stomach, rashes, insomnia, ulcers, high blood pressure, heart disease, and stroke. With the death of a loved one, the birth of a child, a job promotion, or a new relationship, we experience stress as we readjust our lives. In so adjusting to different circumstances, stress will help or hinder us depending on how we react to it.  [Link updated 4/9/11]

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