CAMPAIGN LIFE IN THE WILDERNESS.
It has been the author's object in the preparation of this book not simply to content the reader with a mere 
superficial knowledge of so-called "Amateur trapping," but to carry him further into the art professionally 
considered, and for this reason we present in the following chapter a full catalogue of the trapper's outfit, 
containing detailed descriptions of all the necessaries for a most thorough campaign, including boats and canoes, 
log cabins, shanties and tents, snow shoes and camp furniture of all kinds, together with numerous and valuable 
hints on trapper's food.

PLAN OF CAMPAIGN.
The first thing to be considered in reference to a campaign is the selection of a trapping ground, and it is always 
desirable to choose a locality where travel by water can be resorted to as much as possible. Otter, mink, beaver 
and muskrat are among the most desirable game for the trapper, and as these are all amphibious animals, a 
watered district is therefore the best on all accounts.

Lakes, ponds, and streams, bordered by wild woods, form the best possible grounds for general trapping, and the
mountain lakes of the Adirondacks and Alleghenies, and all similar regions are especially desirable on this account.
Almost any wild country, intersected with streams, lakes, and rivers, is apt to abound with game, and some trappers 
confine their labors to the borders of a single lake, and adjoining forest. This plan is especially to be recommended 
to the amateur, as much of the travelling to and fro can be done by boat, the labor being thus much lightened. 

Having decided upon the seat of operations, the young trappers should immediately set to work at building their 
shanties and boats. The home shanty is of the greatest importance, and should be constructed first. 

Select some flat bit of land near the water and clear it of brush wood, or other rubbish and proceed to work as 
described on page 242. A good axe is the only tool required by an experienced trapper in the construction of such 
a shanty. 

Should the trapping lines be very extensive, additional bark shanties, page 245, will require to be made at intervals 
along the line, for sleeping stations and shelters in case of storm. The professional trapper generally attends to the
building of his shanties and boats before the trapping season commences, and thus has everything in readiness for
his campaign. 

If in a birch bark country the Indian canoe, page 260, is the most desirable craft, on account of its lightness and 
portability. The dug-out, or bateau, described on page 259, will also do good service.

The trapping season begins in October, and everything should be in readiness at this time, so that the trappers 
may devote all their time strictly to business.

The route of the professional trapper often extends over fifty miles, and the number and weight of traps and 
provisions which these rough-and-ready individuals often carry as personal luggage is most astounding. Fifty or 
sixty pounds apiece is considered a fair burden, and they deem no one a fit physical subject for a campaign who 
cannot at least manage thirty pounds with comparative ease. The number of the trapping party generally consists 
of from two to four. A few days prior to the opening of the trapping season, the party start out, laden with their 
burden of traps and provisions, and deposit them at intervals along the line, the provisions being mainly kept in the 
"home shanty." Several trips may be necessary to complete these preparations, unless the trapping ground is 
readily accessible by wagon or boat, in which case the transportation is much easier.

The "home shanty" is generally built only when the trapping grounds are far in the wilderness, miles away from 
civilization. If the line extends from the outskirts of some town or village, such a hut may be dispensed with. It is used
principally as a storehouse for furs, provisions, ammunition, tools, and other valuables, and also serves as a point 
of rendezvous, or a home, for the trappers, one of the number being generally left in charge to "keep shanty" while 
his companions are on their tramps in search of game. If desired, a boy may be taken along for this especial 
purpose. In every case, some such guardian is very necessary, and particularly in wild districts, abounding in 
wolves and bears, as these animals have an odd trick of breaking into unguarded shanties, and often make sad 
havoc with its stores. 

Steel traps are almost exclusively used by the professional trapper, and the supply for a single campaign will often 
exceed one hundred and fifty. Many of the traps described in the early part of this work are also used, and for the 
amateur who has not the ready cash to layout in steel traps, are decidedly to be recommended and will be found 
very efficient. From thirty to fifty traps would be a fair number for an ordinary amateur trapping season, and the 
probable cost of such a lot would be from $15 to $25. The sizes of the traps will depend upon the game sought, 
No. 2-1/2 being a good average. With this supply, relying somewhat on dead-falls, twitch-ups, and the various other
devices described in our early pages, we can guarantee lively sport, of course, presuming that good judgment has 
been used in the selection of a trapping ground. 

In later articles, under the proper headings, we give full details concerning food and cooking utensils, shelter and 
bedding, as well as many other requisites for the trapper's comfort. To complete the list he should provide himself 
with a good sharp axe, and hatchet, and if the log canoe is in anticipation he will also require the other tools 
mentioned on page 259 an oilstone being carried in order to keep the various tools in good repair; an auger, saw, 
and some large nails are also to be desired, and a small parcel containing needles, thread, pins, scissors, etc., will 
be found indispensable. "Cleanliness is next to Godliness," and there are no more luxurious necessities in camp life
than a piece of soap and a clean towel. For light it is advisable to carry a supply of candles, or a lantern with a can 
of oil. The latter is, of course, more bulky, and for a campaign wholly on foot is hardly to be recommended on this 
account.

Each trapper should be provided with a stout jack-knife, pocket-compass, and a supply of matches, a number of 
these being always carried on the person to provide for the emergencies to which the hunter is always subject.

One of the party should carry a double-barreled shot-gun and another a rifle, or both may be combined in a single 
weapon. A revolver is also a desirable acquisition. Purified Neats-foot oil should be used on the fire-arms, and in 
lieu of this, some trappers use the melted fat of the grouse for the same purpose. A good supply of fishing tackle is 
almost indispensable, and with these valuable equipments the young trapper may defy the wilderness with all its 
hazards. With his traps, gun and rod, together with his store of provisions, he may look forward to a larder well 
stocked and may calculate on an appetite which will do it justice.

The list of portable provisions and cooking utensils best adapted for a campaign are given under their proper title, 
and will be found to cover all the wants of the most fastidious. The stove is the most cumbersome article, but
trappers generally dispense with its use altogether, looking at it rather in the light of a luxury as well as a nuisance. 
The open camp fire will answer every purpose, both for cooking and for comfort in cold weather.

For clothing it is desirable to carry at least two suits, in order to have a "change." They should be of woolen, and 
from the hunter's point of view, should be of a sombre shade, so as to be as inconspicuous as possible. The use 
of high-top boots is to be deprecated, as they are tiresome and unwieldy. Short boots, with thick, iron-pegged 
soles, are generally preferred by trappers, and in order to render them soft, pliable, and waterproof they may be 
soaked or smeared with a hot mixture, composed of one part rosin, two parts beeswax, and three parts tallow. 
Simple tallow, or even the fat of the deer, is sometimes used for the same purpose.

Calculating on a successful campaign, a supply of board-stretchers, page 273, will be needed for the curing of the
skins, and if our adventurous enthusiasts should extend their experience along into the winter, the toboggan and 
snowshoes will come into good use for convenient winter travel.

The trapping season properly commences in October and ends in April. The pelts of fur bearing animals are in their
best condition during this time, and in the winter are in their prime. The various modes of setting and baiting traps 
for all our leading animals are clearly set forth in another part of this volume. And in the accompanying engravings 
will be found life like representations of each species.

In a trapping campaign it is an excellent plan to select a central point for the home shanty, extending the trapping 
lines in several directions therefrom, following the borders of the lakes or streams for the otter, beaver, mink and
muskrat; and setting a few lines inland for the capture of martens, racoons, foxes, etc.

For an amateur campaign this a most excellent and convenient arrangement, the lines may extend all the way from 
one to five miles each, and connect at their edges, the whole ground plan resembling the form of a wheel, the  
shanty corresponding to the hub, and the trapping lines the spokes, the tire representing the circuit connecting the 
various lines. Where the latter extend over many miles it is well to construct bark shanties at the limits. Let each 
trapper take a certain "spoke," and follow it to its terminus, returning on the adjacent line. 

On his arrival at the shanty he should immediately set to work skinning the animals taken, and stretching their furs. 
Full directions for skinning the various game are given under their respective titles, and the curing of skins is 
treated in detail in another chapter of this work. We also present a table of the comparative values of the various 
American furs at the present date of publication. Of course these values are constantly varying, but the table will 
serve at least to gauge the relative values of common and scarce furs. Great care should always be used in
removing the skins from the various animals, as the final value of the fur much depends upon this. They should not 
be removed from the stretchers until perfectly dry, and should then be laid in a cool, airy place. 

When near a village or settlement it is advisable to send "into town" every few days with a batch of furs for safe 
keeping, and particularly so when the skins are valuable, and in cases where the home shanty is left unguarded. 
The value of prime otter or mink pelt is a matter of no small importance, and a good trapping ground furnishes a
rare field for light fingered prowlers who are well posted on the market price of raw furs, and who are constantly on 
the lookout for such prizes, either in the shape of the prepared skin, or on the back of the live animal. These "trap
robbers," or poachers, are the pests of trappers, and many have learned from dear experience the advisability of 
placing their choice furs beyond the reach of the marauders. The hut in which they are stored is nearly always kept 
guarded, and, where this is impracticable, the skins are hid in hollow trees, or carried to some near settlement, as 
we have already mentioned.

If the campaign proves successful and promises well for another season, it is customary to hide the traps beneath 
rocks, thus saving the labor of a second transportation. In order to keep the traps from rusting, it is well to cover 
them with oat or buckwheat chaff. The rock should be first rolled from its resting place, and a bed of the chaff made
beneath it, in which the traps should be covered, the rock being afterwards replaced. In a few such places all the 
traps may be effectually stored away, and they will be found in prime order and ready for business on the following 
season.

In the months of September and October trappers are much annoyed by gnats and mosquitoes, and, as a 
preventive against the attacks of these pests, we give on page 255 some valuable receipts, which have stood the 
test of time, and are still the most effective remedies. The "smudge," consisting of a smoldering pile of birch bark is 
also used where the insects infest the tents or shanties by night. The bark should be dry, and should not be 
allowed to blaze. The smudge is generally placed at the entrance of the tent, and the trapper may then take his
choice between smoke or mosquitoes, both cannot exist together, and a tent infested with the blood-thirsty pests 
may be effectually cleared in a few minutes by the introduction of smoking brand for a few seconds. If the tent is 
now closely buttoned and the smudge kept burning directly outside, there will be no further trouble with the 
mosquitoes, and the odor of the smoke is, after all, but a slight annoyance and to some is even enjoyable after 
being once accustomed to it. When the home shanty is infested, it may be cleared in the same way, and by the aid 
of two or more smudges on the windward side may be kept free from the insects.

FOOD AND COOKING UTENSILS.
The professional trapper on a campaign depends much upon his traps for his food, and often entirely contents 
himself with the subsistence thus gained. We encourage and believe in "roughing it" to a certain extent, but not to 
that limit to which it is often carried by many professional "followers of the trap" throughout our country. The course 
of diet to which these individuals subject themselves, would often do better credit to a half civilized barbarian than to
an enlightened white man, and when it comes to starting on a campaign with no provision for food excepting a few 
traps, a gun, and a box of matches, and relying on a chance chip for a frying-pan, he would rather be "counted 
out." In ordinary cases we see no necessity for such deprivation, and, on the other hand, we decry the idea of
transporting a whole kitchen and larder into the woods. There is a happy medium between the two extremes, 
whereby a light amount of luggage in the shape of cooking utensils and closely packed portable food, may render 
the wild life of the trapper very cozy and comfortable, and his meals a source of enjoyment, instead of a fulfillment 
of physical duty. What with the stock of traps, necessary tools, blankets, etc., the trapper's burden is bound to be 
pretty heavy, and it becomes necessary to select such food for transportation as shall combine the greatest 
amount of nutriment and the least possible weight, and to confine the utensils to those absolutely necessary for 
decent cooking.

The trapper's culinary outfit may then be reduced to the following items, and in them he will find a sufficiency for 
very passable living.

One of the most nutritious and desirable articles of food consists of fine sifted Indian meal; and it is the only 
substantial article of diet which many trappers will deign to carry at all.

By some it is mixed with twice its quantity of wheat flour, and is thus used in the preparation of quite a variety of 
palatable dishes. One or two pounds of salt pork will also be found a valuable addition; boxes of pepper and salt 
and soda should also be carried. With these simple provisions alone, relying on his gun, traps and fishing tackle for 
animal food, the young trapper may rely on three enjoyable meals a day, if he is anything of a cook. Pork fritters 
are not to be despised, even at a hotel table; and with the above they can be made to suit the palate of the most 
fastidious.

Indian meal is a valuable accessory with cooks generally, and to the trapper it often becomes his great "staff of life."
If our young enthusiast desires to try his hand at roughing it to the fullest extent, compatible with common sense 
and the strength of an ordinary physical constitution, he may endeavor to content himself with the above portable 
rations; but with anything less it becomes too much like starvation to arouse our enthusiasm.

For cooking utensils, a small frying-pan and a deep tin basin are indispensable; and a drinking cup is also to be 
desired. The kind known as the telescope cup, constructed in three parts, which close within each other, when not 
in use, possesses great advantages on account of its portability. With these one can get along pretty decently.

The pork fritters already mentioned form a favorite dish with trappers generally, and can be made in the following 
way; have at hand a thick batter of the Indian meal and flour; cut a few slices of the pork, and fry them in the
frying-pan until the fat is tried out; cut a few more slices of the pork; dip them in the batter and drop them in the 
bubbling fat, seasoning with salt and pepper; cook until light brown and eat while hot. The question now arises, 
"What shall we eat them with?" 

If you are "roughing it," such luxuries as plates and knifes and forks are surely out of the question; and you must 
content yourself with a pair of chop sticks "a la Chinee," or make your jackknife do double purpose, using a flat chip
or stone as a plate. A small tin plate may be added to the list of utensils if desired, but we are now confining 
ourselves to the "lowest limit" of absolute necessities. 

That wholesome dish known as "boiled mush," may come under the above bill of fare; and fried mush is an old 
stand-by to the rough and ready trapper. In the first case the Indian meal is slowly boiled for one hour, and then 
seasoned as eaten. It is then allowed to cool, and is cut in slices and fried in fat. Indian meal cakes are easily made 
by dropping a quantity of the hot mush in the frying-pan, having previously stirred in a small quantity of soda, and 
turning it as soon as the lower side is browned. A Johnny cake thus made is always appetizing, and with the addition
of a little sugar, it becomes a positive luxury. Hoe cakes, so much relished by many, can be made by mixing up a 
quantity into a thick mass, adding a little soda. Bake in the fire on a chip or flat stone. 

The trapper's ground is generally in the neighborhood of lakes or streams, and fresh fish are always to be had. 
They may be cooked in a manner which would tempt a city epicure; and when it comes to the cooking of a fresh 
brook trout, neither a Prof. Blot nor a Delmonico can compete with the trapper's recipe. The trout is first emptied 
and cleaned through a hole at the neck, if the fish is large enough to admit of it; if not, it should be done by a slit up
the belly. The interior should be carefully washed and seasoned with salt and pepper; and in the case of a large
fish, it should be stuffed with Indian meal. Build a good fire and allow the wood to burn down to embers; lay the fish 
in the hot ashes and cover it with the burning coals and embers; leave it thus for about half an hour, more or less, 
in proportion to the size of the fish (this may be easily determined by experiment); when done, remove it carefully 
from the ashes, and peel off the skin. The clean pink flesh and delicious savor which now manifest themselves will 
create an appetite where none before existed. All the delicate flavor and sweet juices of the fish are thus retained, 
and the trout as food is then known in its perfection.

By the ordinary method of cooking, the trout loses much of its original flavor by the evaporation of its juices; and 
although a delicious morsel in any event, it is never fully appreciated excepting after being roasted in the ashes, as 
above described. The other method consists in rolling the fish in the Indian meal and frying it in the frying-pan with 
a piece of the salt pork. Seasoning as desired.

Partridges, ducks, quail, and other wild fowl are most delicious when cooked in the ashes as described for the trout.
The bird should be drawn in the ordinary manner, and the inside washed perfectly clean. It should then be 
embedded in the hot coals and ashes, the feathers having been previously saturated with water. When done, the 
skin and feathers will easily peel off, and the flesh will be found to be wonderfully sweet, tender, and juicy. A stuffing
of pounded crackers and minced meat of any kind, with plenty of seasoning, greatly improves the result, or the 
Indian meal may be used if desired. A fowl thus roasted is a rare delicacy. 

A partridge, squirrel, pigeon, woodcock, or any other game can be broiled as well in the woods as at home, using a 
couple of green-branched twigs for a spider or "toaster," and turning occasionally. For this purpose the bird should 
be plucked of its feathers, cleanly drawn and washed, and spread out by cutting down the back. Venison, moose, or
bear meat, can be deliciously roasted in joints of several pounds before a good fire, using a green birch branch as 
a spit, and resting it on two logs, situated on opposite sides of the fire. The meat can thus be occasionally turned 
and propped in place by a small stick, sprinkling occasionally with salt and pepper. 

The above manner of making the fire is that adopted by most woodsmen. Two large green logs, of several feet in 
length, being first laid down at about three feet distant, between these the fire is built, and when a kettle is used a 
heavy pole is so arranged as to project and hold it over the fire. A cutlet of venison fried in the pan is delicious, and 
a "Johnny cake" cooked in the fat of this meat is a decided dainty.

With the above hints for a "rough and ready" campaign, we think the young trapper ought to be able to get along 
quite comfortably.

We will now pass on to the consideration of what the average professional trapper would call "luxuries." The stock 
of these depends much upon the location of the trapping ground. If accessible by wagon or boat, or both, they may 
be carried in unlimited quantities, but when they are to be borne on the back of the trapper through a pathless 
wilderness of miles, the supply will, of course, have to be cut short. When two or three start out together it becomes 
much easier, one carrying the traps and tools; another the guns, cooking utensils, etc.; the third confining his 
luggage to the food. 

One of the most necessary requisites for a journey on foot consists in a knapsack or large square basket, which 
can be easily strapped to the back of the shoulders, thus leaving the hands free. Matches are absolutely 
indispensable, and a good supply should be carried. They should always be enclosed in a large-mouthed bottle 
with a close fitting cork, to prevent their being damaged by moisture. For further safety in this regard the matches
may be rendered perfectly water-proof by dipping their ends in thin mastic or shellac varnish. If not at hand, this 
varnish can be easily made by dissolving a small quantity of either sort of gum in three or four times its bulk of 
alcohol. It is well to dip the whole stick in the solution, thereby rendering the entire match impervious to moisture. 
Lucifer matches are the best, and, when thus prepared, they may lay in water for hours without any injury. 

It is a fearful thing to find oneself in the wilderness, cold and hungry, and without the means of lighting a fire, and to
prepare for such an emergency it is always advisable to be provided with a pocket sun glass. So long as the sun 
shines a fire is thus always to be had, either by igniting a small quantity of powder (which the trapper is always
supposed to carry) or using powdered "touch wood" or "punk tinder" in its place.

Fine scrapings from dry wood will easily ignite by the sun glass, and by fanning the fire and adding additional fuel it 
will soon burst into flame. In cloudy weather, and in the absence of matches, a fire may easily be kindled by 
sprinkling a small quantity of powder on a large flat stone, setting a percussion cap in its midst, and covering the 
whole with dry leaves. A smart strike on the cap with a hammer will have the desired result, and by heaping 
additional fuel on the blazing leaves the fire soon reaches large proportions. 

If the young trapper should ever be so unfortunate as to find himself in the wild woods, chilled and hungry, minus 
matches, powder, caps, and sun glass, he may as a last resort try the following: Scrape some lint or cotton from 
some portion of the garment, or some tinder from a dry stick, and lay it on the surface of some rough rock, white 
quartz rock if it can be found. Next procure a fragment of the same stone, or a piece of steel from some one of the 
traps, and strike its edge sharply, and with a skipping stroke into the further side of the tinder, the direction being 
such as will send the sparks thus produced into the inflammable material. Continue this operation until the tinder 
ignites. By now gently fanning the smoking mass it may easily be coaxed into flame. At least so our Adirondack
guide told us last summer. The author has never had occasion to test the merits of the plan for himself, and has no 
special desire of being so placed, as that his life will hang upon its success. He presents it therefore as a mere 
suggestion without endorsing its practicability, and would rather prefer matches in the long run. 

The open fire generally serves both for purposes of warmth and cooking, but by many, a camp stove is considered 
a great improvement. Stoves of this character, and for this especial purpose, are in the market. They are small and
portable, with pipe and furniture, all of which pack away closely into the interior. A fire is easily started in one of 
these stoves, and, by closing the damper, a slow fire may be kept up through the night. The stove is generally set
up at the entrance of the tent, the pipe passing through the top, in a hole near the ridge pole. The furniture 
consists of three pots or kettles, which pack easily into each other, and when in the stove still leave ample room for 
a considerable amount of provisions.

The kettles are made of block-tin, and frying-pans also, as these are much more light and portable than those 
made of iron. The lid may be used as a plate, and for this purpose the handle consists of an iron ring, which will fold
flat against the surface when inverted. Knives, forks, and spoons are easily stowed away in the stove or knapsack, 
and a coffee-pot should always be carried. There is a knife known as the combination camp-knife, which is much 
used by hunters and trappers, and contains a spoon, fork, knife, and various other useful appendages, in a most 
compact form. It costs from one to two dollars.

For provisions, potatoes will be found excellent, both on account of their portability and the variety of ways in which 
they may be served. They are healthy and nutritions, and always palatable. Beans are also very desirable for the 
same reasons. Wheat flour will form a valuable addition to the trapper's larder, and particularly so, if the 
"self-raising" kind can be had. This flour contains all the required ingredients for light bread and biscuit, and is sold 
by grocers generally, in packages of various sizes, with accompanying recipes. We strongly recommend it where a 
stove is employed; and to anyone who is fond of biscuit, bread, or pancakes, it will be appreciated. Butter, lard, 
sugar, salt, pepper and mustard are valuable accessories, and curry-powder, olive oil, and vinegar will often be 
found useful. Olive oil is often used by camping parties with the curry powder, and also as a substitute for lard in 
the frying-pan. Pork, Indian meal and crackers, wheaten grits, rice, and oat-meal are desirable, and coffee and tea 
are great luxuries. For soups, Liebig's extract of beef is a most valuable article, and with the addition of other 
ingredients, vegetables or meat, the result is a most delicious and nutritious dish. This extract is obtainable at 
almost any grocer's, and full directions and recipes accompany each jar. Canned vegetables are much to be 
desired on account of their portability, and are never so delicious as when cooked over a camp fire. Lemonade is 
always a luscious beverage, but never so much so as to a thirsty trapper. A few lemons are easily carried and will
repay the trouble.

All provisions, such as meal, flour, sugar, salt, crackers, and the like, should be enclosed in water-proof canvas 
bags, and labeled. The bags may be rendered water-proof either by painting, (in which case no lead or arsenic 
paints should be used) or by dipping in the preparation described on page 247. If these are not used, a rubber 
blanket, page 250, may be substituted, the eatables being carefully wrapped therein, when not in use. The butter 
and lard should be put up in airtight jars, and should be kept in a cool place, either on the ground in a shady spot, 
or in some cool spring.

For a campaign on foot, the knapsack, or shoulder-basket, already alluded to on page 234, is an indispensable 
article. It should be quite large and roomy, say fifteen inches in depth and ten by twelve inches in its other 
dimensions. The material should be canvas, rubber cloth, or wicker, and, in any case, the opening at the top should
have a water-proof covering extending well over the sides. The straps may consist of old suspender bands, 
fastened crosswise on the broad side of the bag. The capacity of such a knapsack is surprising, and the actual 
weight of luggage seems half reduced when thus carried on the shoulders. When three or four trappers start 
together, which is the usual custom, and each is provided with such a shoulder basket, the luggage can be thus 
divided, and the load for each individual much lightened.

Jerked Venison
Venison is the trapper's favorite food, and in mild weather it sometimes happens that the overplus of meat becomes
tainted before it can be eaten. To overcome this difficulty the following process is resorted to, for the preservation 
of the meat, and the result is the well-known and high-priced "jerked venison" of our markets. The flesh is first cut 
into small, thin strips, all the meat being picked off from the bones. The pieces are then placed on the inside of the 
hide of the animal and thoroughly mixed with salt, a pint and a half being generally sufficient. The salt being well 
worked in, the fragments should be carefully wrapped in the hide, and suffered to remain in this condition for two or 
three hours. The meat is then ready to be dried,—"jerked."

Four forked poles should be first driven into the ground, about six feet apart, in the form of a square, the forks 
being four feet above ground. Lay two poles of green wood across the forks on the two opposite sides of the 
square, and cover the space between them by other poles laid across them, an inch or two inches apart. On to this 
mammoth gridiron the strips of flesh should now be spread, and a steady fire of birch or other clean, fresh wood 
should be kept steadily burning beneath for about twenty-four hours. At the end of this time the meat will have 
reduced much in size and weight. The salt will have been thoroughly dried in, and the flesh so prepared maybe 
kept for almost any length of time. In its present condition it is excellent eating, and it is always at hand for frying, 
and may be cooked in a variety of ways. Moose and bear meat may be dried in a similar manner, using a 
proportionate amount of salt. Fish may also be prepared in the same way, for which purpose they should be scaled 
as usual and afterward spread open by cutting down the back, the bone being removed. We cordially recommend 
this method of preparing both flesh and fish, and no trapper's "recipe book" is complete without it.

In localities where wolves abound, the nocturnal invasions of these creatures often render the keeping of fresh 
meat a very difficult task, and in this connection it may be well to give directions for the preservation of game 
desired to be used either as fresh meat or for purposes of drying.

The spring-pole is most commonly and successfully used.

Select some stout sapling, bend it down, and cut off a limb several feet from the ground. Hang the meat in the 
crotch thus formed, and allow the tree to swing back. By dividing the meat into several parts it may thus all be 
protected. When a moose or deer is killed at such a time or place, or under such circumstances as render its 
immediate dressing impossible, its carcass may be defended against mutilation by another means. Wolves are 
naturally sly and sagacious, and have a wholesome fear of a trap. Any unnatural arrangement of logs and stones
immediately excites their suspicion, and the trapper takes advantage of this wary peculiarity to good purpose. 
Laying his dead game near some fallen tree or old log he strews a few branches over the carcass, or perhaps rests
a log over it. Sometimes he hangs the entrails of the animal over the body, on a forked stick, anyone of which 
devices is said to have the desired result. The wolverine is another pest to the trapper, and not being so sly as the 
wolf, never hesitates to pounce upon any flesh within its reach. The former method, therefore, is always the safest 
plan for absolute protection against all animals.

The moose and deer are the favorite food of trappers in the country where these animals abound, and the trappers
of the Far West find in the flesh of the Moufflon, or Rocky Mountain sheep, a delicacy which they consider superior 
to the finest venison. The prong-horn antelope of the Western plains is another favorite food-animal with hunters, 
and the various "small game," such as squirrels, rabbits, woodchucks, etc., are by no means to be despised. The
author once knew a trapper who was loud in his praises of "skunk meat" for food, and many hunters can testify to 
its agreeable flavor when properly dressed and cooked. It is hard, to be sure, to get up much enthusiasm over a 
skunk, dead or alive, but where other food is not to be had we would discourage the young trapper from being too 
fastidious.

The buffalo, or bison, is the great resource of the trappers of the West. The tongue, tenderloin and brisket are 
generally preferred, but all the meat is eatable. The flesh of the cow is best. It much resembles beef, but has a 
more gamey flavor. In winged game there is no food superior to the flesh of the grouse, and the great number of 
the species and wide range of territory which they inhabit render them the universal food game of trappers 
throughout the world. The ruffed grouse or partridge, pinnated grouse or prairie hen, spruce or Canada grouse, 
and the cock-of-the-plains or sage cock, are familiar American examples of the family, and their near relatives, the 
ptarmigans, afford a valuable source of food to the trappers and hunters, as well as general inhabitants of our 
northern cold countries. Here they are known as "snow grouse," and there are several species. The willow 
ptarmigan is the most common, and in Rome localities exists in almost incredible numbers. Flocks numbering 
several thousand have been frequently seen by travelers in the Hudson's Bay territory; and the surface of the snow
in a desirable feeding ground, is often completely covered by the birds, in quest of the willow tops, which form their 
chief food during the winter season. The Indians and natives secure the birds in large numbers, by the trap 
described on page 75, and Hearne, the traveler and explorer of the Hudson's Bay region, asserts that he has 
known over three hundred to be thus caught in a single morning, by three persons.

Of water fowl, ducks and geese are especially to be recommended. The former are hunted with decoys and boats, 
and are sometimes trapped, as described on pages 94. The species are distinguished as sea ducks and river or 
inland ducks. The latter are considered the most desirable for food, being more delicate and less gamey in flavor 
than the salt-water, or fish-eating varieties. The mallard, teal, muscovy, widgeon, and wood-chuck are familiar 
species of the inland birds, and the merganser and canvass-back are the two most esteemed salt-water varieties. 
Wild geese are common throughout North America, and may be seen either in the early spring or late fall migrating
in immense numbers. They form a staple article of food in many parts of British America, and great numbers are
salted down for winter supply. They are trapped in large numbers, as described on page 75, and are hunted with 
tame geese as decoys, the hunter being secreted behind a screen or covert, and attracting the game by imitating 
their cries.

Fish form an agreeable change to the trapper's diet, and may be caught by the hook and line, or by spearing. The 
latter method requires considerable practice and skill, but is very successful. The Indians of the North are great 
experts in the use of the spear, and the number of salmon taken by them annually is enormous. The spear 
generally consists of five or six steel prongs an inch apart and barbed at the ends. It is mounted on a heavy handle,
and when it strikes its victim its grip is sure death. The spearing is generally performed either at the spawning beds 
or at the falls.

Salmon trout are generally speared in the night time by boat, the spawning ground, generally a gravel bank near 
the shore, being the seat of operations. A fire of pitch pine and birch bark is ignited on an elevated "jack" in the 
bow of the boat, the "jack" consisting of an ox-muzzle, or other concave wire contrivance which will hold the 
inflammable materials. This is secured to a post or crotched stick, as a prop, and the spearman stands near the
burning mass with his spear in readiness. As his companion in the stern of the boat paddles, he keenly watches for 
his victim, and, seeing his opportunity, makes his lunge and lands his prize. To become a successful spearman 
requires much practice and no small degree of skill. To retain one's balance, acquire quickness of stroke, and
withal to regulate the aim so as to allow for the refraction of the light in the water, all tend to invest the sport with a 
degree of skill which only experience can master.

Fishing through the ice in winter is a rare sport, and large numbers of brook and lake trout are often taken at this 
season by cutting holes through the ice and fishing with hook and line. The baits commonly used consist of cow's 
udder or hog's liver, these being especially preferred on account of their toughness. Angle worms are also 
excellent, and any kind of raw meat may be used if other bait is not to be had.

It is asserted by some sportsmen that bait scented with assafoetida is much more attractive to the fish, and will 
insure a capture which would otherwise be impossible. Sweet cicily and anise are also used for the same purpose. 
When the trout bite lively, fishing through the ice is a most exciting sport, and by the aid of "tip-ups" a single person 
may command a great number of lines. The winter resort of the brook trout is in water two or three feet deep, over 
sandy beds. The lake trout frequent deeper water.

The holes are made in the ice at intervals of one or two rods, and a line set in each hole.

The "tip-up" consists of a narrow strip of lath or shingle, with a hole bored through it near the large end. At this end 
the line is attached, and the hook thrown in the water. A branch is now inserted through the aperture, and its ends
are rested across the opening in the ice. No sooner does the fish bite than the long end tips straight in the air, and 
thus betrays its captive. Ten or fifteen of these contrivances will often keep one pretty busy, and do good service. 
By some an ordinary cut fish pole, arranged on a crotch, is used instead of the tip-ups just described. 

Pickerel fishing through the ice is a favorite winter sport in many localities. The line should be about thirty feet in 
length, and the bait should consist of a small, live fish, hooked through the back. A small cork float should be 
attached to the line at such a distance as will keep the bait above the bottom, and the superfluous line should be 
laid in a loose coil near the hole, the end being attached to a small switch or bush, stuck up in the ice near by. The
pickerel, on taking the bait, should be allowed to play out the whole line before being pulled in, as the fish requires 
this time to fully swallow his prey, after which the hook is sure to hold him firmly. Twenty or thirty lines may thus be
attended at once, the bush or twig acting the part of a tip-up, or sentinel.

Pickerel spearing is another successful mode of capture during the winter months. A large hole is made in the ice, 
in about two feet of water, and covered by a spacious box or board hut, six or seven feet square, and provided with 
a door. The spearman, concealed within, lowers his bait, consisting of an artificial fish with silver fins, made 
especially for the purpose. This he continually twirls in the water, and as the pickerel approaches the bait, he 
gradually raises it, until the fish is decoyed nearly to the surface of the water, when a quick stroke of the spear 
secures his victim, and the line is again lowered. This is capital sport, and is very successful.

There is a very curious device for fishing by night commonly employed by some anglers, and sometimes known as 
the "lantern, or fish trap." Many kinds of fish are attracted by a light, but to use a light as a bait, submerged beneath
the water, certainly seems odd. It may be done, however, in the following way: The "fish lantern" used for this 
purpose consists of a bottle containing a solution of phosphorus in sweet oil. Procure a piece of the stick 
phosphorus the size of a small cherry, and submerging in a saucer of water, proceed to cut it into small pieces. 
Have in readiness a three-ounce white glass bottle half filled with sweet oil. Drop the pieces of phosphorus into the 
oil and cork the bottle tightly. In the space of a few hours the phosphorus will have been completely dissolved, and
the contents of the bottle will present a thick, luminous fluid, which in a dark room, will afford considerable light. This 
is the fish lantern. To use it, the cork is firmly inserted and the bottle, with fish line attached, is lowered through the 
hole in the ice. The water becomes luminous for several feet around, and the unusual brightness attracts the fish in
large numbers. They are plainly, discernible, and are readily dispatched with the spear, or captured by a circular 
net, sunk on the bottom, beneath the luminous bait. This is certainly an odd way of catching fish, but it is often a 
very efficacious method.

It has not been our intention to enter very extensively into the subject of fishing, but only to give such hints as will be
found especially useful and practical to the trapper in relation to his food. The above methods, together with those 
of trolling and fly-fishing, are those most commonly employed by trappers and hunters generally, and we commend 
them to the amateur. We give, on page 120, a unique device for the capture of fish, which might also be found 
useful.

With the above general remarks on the campaign, together with what follows in the detailed articles on the subject, 
we think that the ground will have been completely covered. Every possible requirement has been anticipated, and 
every ordinary emergency foreseen and provided against.

THE TRAPPER'S SHELTER.
The life of the professional trapper is a life of hardship and severe exposure, and a man not only requires 
considerable courage, but also great bodily vigor, in order to combat successfully the dangers of such a wild, 
adventuresome existence. The cold and the storm not only imperil his life, but he is often exposed to the attacks of 
wild beasts. A shelter, therefore, in one form or another, becomes a necessity while it is always a decided comfort, 
in comparison to a campaign without it.

The reader will find below descriptions of the various shelters alluded to in other parts of this work, and used by 
trappers throughout the land. The most substantial of these is the log shanty, commonly known among trappers as 
the "home shanty," on account of its being constructed as the only permanent shelter on the trapping line. It is used
as a "home," a place of rendezvous, and a storehouse for provisions, furs, and other necessities and valuables. 

Other temporary shelters, known as bark shanties, are also constructed along the trapping lines at intervals of five 
or ten miles, as resting places. These we describe under the proper title.

Although, to the amateur trapper, the log shanty is not likely to become a necessity, we will nevertheless describe 
its mode of construction, in order to satisfy our more earnest and adventurous readers, who aspire to a full taste of
wild life. Our illustration gives a very clear idea of such a shanty.

THE HOME SHANTY.
It may be constructed of any size, but one of about twelve by ten feet will be found large enough for ordinary
purposes. Select straight logs, about eight inches in diameter. The whole number required will be thirty-six. Of 
these one half should be twelve feet in length and the other, ten. These should now be built up in the square form, 
on a level piece of ground, laying the ends of the logs over each other, and securing them by notches at the 
corners, so deep as to allow the edges of the logs to meet. Lay two short logs first, and continue building until all 
the thirty-six logs are used, and we will now have four symmetrical sides about six feet in height. 

The place for the door should now be selected. The uppermost log should form its upper outline, and the two sides 
should be cleanly and straightly cut with a crosscut saw. The window openings, one or more, may next be cut, 
commencing beneath the second log from the top, and taking in three beneath it. Replace the logs above, and on 
the ends of those thus cut, both in windows and doors, proceed to spike a heavy plank, driving two nails into each 
log, about five inches apart, one above the other. This will hold them firmly in place, and offer a close-fitting jam for 
the door, and neat receptacle for the window sashes, which latter may now be put in after the ordinary manner.

The gable ends should next be built upon the smaller sides of the hut. Commence by laying a long log (notched as 
before) across the top of the frame work, and about two feet inside the edge. This should of course be done on 
both sides of the hut, after which they should be overlapped at the corners with logs eight feet in length. 

Next lay two more long logs, parallel with the first two, and about a foot inside them, notching as before. The ends 
of these should be spanned with beams eight feet in length. Two more long logs are next in order—let them be one 
foot inside the last two. Overlap these with beams five feet and a half in length, and in the exact centre of these last 
pieces chop notches for a heavy log for a ridge pole. The gable outline, direct from the ridge pole to the eaves, 
should now be cut off by the aid of a sharp axe. This may be done either while the pieces are in position, or the line 
may be marked with a piece of chalk, and the logs taken down in order to accomplish it. 

The roof is now required. This should consist either of strips of bark or the rounded sides of logs split off and 
hollowed into troughs. The latter method is preferable, on account of its greater strength and durability, but the 
bark will answer the purpose very well, and is much more easily obtained. The manner of adjusting the roof pieces 
is clearly shown in our illustration. The first row is laid on with the hollow side up, securing them at top and bottom 
by nails driven through each into the ridge pole and eaves-log, care being taken that one of these pieces projects 
well over the gable, on both ends of the hut. These pieces are now overlapped by the second row, and with the 
addition of the large piece which covers them all at the ridge pole, the roof is complete, and will stand a heavy ram 
with little or no leaking. The crevices should now be stopped with moss, dried grass or clay, after which the log 
cabin is complete. 

When the bark roof is made, additional poles may be inserted beneath as props. They should be three or four 
inches in diameter, and run parallel with the ridge pole, at intervals on the slope, notches being cut to secure them.

Our engraving represents a chimney, which may be constructed if desired, but the necessity of this may be done 
away with by using a small camp stove, and making a small opening in the gable end of the hut for the passage of 
the pipe. If it stove should not be at hand, and our amateur should decide to "rough it" to the full extent, he may 
build his fire-place and chimney as follows: 

It will be necessary to cut away an opening in the logs at the gable end, as was done for the door and windows. 
This should be about three feet square, and the fire place should be built of stone and clay, or cement, to fill the 
opening, and project inside the hut. The chimney may then be built up outside in the same manner, sufficiently high 
to overtop the gables.

Inside the hut overhead will be found abundant room for the hanging of the skins, and any number of cross-poles 
may be rested across the beams. There are facilities for the swinging of a hammock, if desired, and, in fact, a hut
constructed like the foregoing is a perfect one in its way. There are other methods of building a log cabin, but we 
will content ourselves with what we consider the best way of all, and pass on to the ...

BARK SHANTY.
This is made by first driving into the ground two forked poles seven or eight feet in height and stout enough to 
sustain a ridge pole of moderate size. Against this ridge pole other poles should be rested at intervals of two feet, 
and sloping to the angle of forty-five degrees. The frame-work thus formed should now be covered with bark, 
commencing at the ground and allowing the edge of each piece to overlap the one beneath after the manner of 
shingles, in order to shed the rain in case of storm. Spruce or birch bark are excellent for this purpose, and the 
pieces may be secured with nails, and kept flat by the weight of another series of poles rested against them. The 
sides of the shelter should be treated similarly, the front being usually left open to face the fire, which the trapper
generally builds a few feet distant. In constructing a bark shanty, it is well to select some spot protected from the 
wind, close to the foot of a mountain or in the midst of trees, always letting the open side face the direction most 
sheltered.

If desired, the front can be enclosed after the manner of the sides and top, but this is not required where the fire is 
used. This style of shelter is represented in our page title to this section, and certainly looks very comfortable.

TENTS.
Shanties like the foregoing are in general use among the old veteran trappers of all countries, and even to the 
amateur there is a charm in a shelter constructed from the rude materials of the woods which the portable tents do 
not possess.

Tents, however, are much used both by professionals and amateurs, and are indeed valuable acquisitions to the
trapper's outfit, and where time is valuable, do away with the labor which the construction of a hut or shanty 
involves. Tents are of several kinds. Those most commonly used by the trapper are the house-tent, fly-tent, and 
half-tent, or shelter-tent.

The first of these is made for prop-poles and a ridge pole, closed on one end and buttoning up at the other. The 
sides are perpendicular for two or three feet, before the slope commences, and the stay-ropes are fastened to the 
eaves.

The fly-tent is generally a large, square piece of canvas, with ropes extending from opposite sides. This is thrown 
over a ridge pole, or over a rope extending between two trees, and the sides are held to the proper slope by 
tightening and pegging the side ropes to the ground. Fly-tents are also made with ends, which can be lowered, and 
the whole tent may be pegged close to the ground.

The shelter-tent, when erected, resembles, in general shape, the bark shanty already described. It consists of a 
strip of canvas, having each end cut off to a point. The tent is pitched over three slanting poles, and the ends are 
brought down and securely pegged. This is clearly shown in our illustration.

We do not propose giving any extended directions for making tents, as they are a staple article of trade, and, as a 
general thing, can be bought for a figure which would render their domestic manufacture of little saving or profit. 
The shelter tent, however, is so useful an affair, and withal so very simple made, that we will give a few directions in 
regard to its manufacture. It should be made from stout cotton drilling, or very heavy sheeting. Let the piece be 
about thirteen feet in length by six in width. Each end of the piece should now be cut to a rectangular point, 
commencing to cut at a distance of three feet from each corner. In order to render the cloth waterproof, it should 
now be dipped in a pail containing a solution of equal parts of alum and sugar of lead, a couple of handfuls of each,
in tepid water. It should be allowed to remain several minutes in soak, being dipped and turned occasionally, after 
which it should be spread out to dry. This treatment not only renders the cloth impervious to rain, but the alum 
tends to make it fire-proof also. A spark from the fire falling upon a tent thus prepared, will often rest upon the cloth 
until it goes out, without doing the slightest damage.

The manner of pitching the tent has already been alluded to, and is clear from our illustration. The poles should be 
three or four in number, and seven feet in length, inserted in the ground at the angle denoted. The two outside 
poles should be seven feet apart, and the intermediate ones equally disposed. The tent piece should now be laid 
over the poles, and the ends brought down and pegged to the ground at the apex, and rear corners of each side 
through loops, which should have been previously attached to these parts. A tent, thus arranged, affords a safe
shelter from the wind or a moderate storm, and with a bright fire in front, is warm and comfortable.

BEDS AND BEDDING.
Many a trapper does away with these commodities, merely rolling himself in a blanket and using his arm for a pillow;
but we do not propose to encourage or recommend any such half-way comfort as this, when by a very little labor a
portable bed can be prepared on which the weary hunter can rest as serenely as if slumbering on the congenial 
softness of a hair mattress. A bed of this kind we illustrate, and it can be made in the following manner: 

Procure a large piece of canvas, sacking or other strong, coarse material six and a half feet square. If a single 
piece of this size cannot be found, several parts may he sewed together to the required dimensions. After which two
opposite sides should be firmly stitched together, thus forming a bottomless bag, if we may be allowed to use the 
expression. 

Two stout poles seven or eight feet in length and as large as the wrist should now be cut. Insert them through the 
bag, allowing the ends to project equally on each side. These ends should now be rested on two logs, one placed 
across each end of the canvas. In order to hold the poles in place notches should be cut in the logs at such 
distances as will draw the bag to its full width. The interior of the canvas should now be filled with dried grass, 
leaves, moss or spruce boughs, after which the bedstead and bed is complete.

The yielding elasticity of the poles and the softness of the warm filling in the bag, give the effect of a spring and 
straw mattress combined, lifting the sleeper above the cold, damp ground, and by the addition of a blanket above, 
insuring warmth on all sides. If the logs are not at hand four forked stakes may be used, driving them firmly into the 
ground at such distances as will draw the bag to its full width, when the poles are rested upon them. If by the weight 
of the body the forked props should tend to incline towards each other this trouble may be easily remedied by 
inserting short poles as braces between them. 

If desired a bed of this kind may be used as a hammock and hung in a tree without much trouble. It is only 
necessary to secure the long poles firmly at their full width by a stout brace pole at the ends, letting the latter be 
deeply notched at the tips in order to receive the bed supports. The joints should then be tightly bound with stout
twine in order to prevent slipping, after which the bed may be hung in mid-air by ropes at each end, and the tired 
trapper may swing himself to sleep with perfect comfort and safety. For this purpose the ropes should be attached 
at the joints, using a loop of six feet for each end. In the centre of this loop a small one should be made by doubling
the rope and winding twine about it, leaving only a small aperture. Through these small loops, by the aid of other 
ropes, the bed is attached to the tree. By using this precaution the unpleasant experience of being turned or 
dumped out of bed will be impossible. For bed clothes a woolen blanket should always be carried, and if convenient 
a large bag of thick Canton flannel is a most excellent acquisition.

Bags of this sort are in common use among amateur trappers, hunters and camping parties, and are very warm 
and comfortable. They should be nearly seven feet in length and of a "loose, easy fit." With one of these 
contrivances it is impossible to "kick the clothes off" and the warmth is continual instead of "intermittent," and even 
on the bare ground it is said to be sufficient protection. Hammocks are also in very general use, but we can 
confidently recommend the suspended bed above described as decidedly preferable.

There are various kinds of hammocks in the market, from the light fibered silk, weighing only a few ounces, to the 
large corded variety of several pounds weight and capable of holding many persons. They are an established 
article of trade, and as the details of their manufacture would be of little practical use to the reader, we will leave 
them without further consideration. They can be had at almost any sporting emporium, at comparatively small cost.

TENT CARPETING.
We have described a most excellent contrivance for a bedstead and recommend its use whenever possible; but 
when the bed is desired to be made on the ground the following method is usually employed, by which the whole
interior of the tent, hut or shanty is carpeted with a soft, even covering of green.

Spruce or hemlock boughs are generally used, and should be from the tips of the branches where the wood is not 
too large. Commence at the back part of the shelter, and lay down a row of the boughs with the butt of the branch 
towards the front. Overlap these with another nearer row and continue the operation, laying the evergreen as 
evenly as possible until the whole interior is smoothly covered. The projecting ends at the front, should now be 
secured by the weight of a medium sized log, or by a pole pegged down firmly at intervals. A similar log should now 
be laid at the back portion of the shelter over the tips of the boughs after which the bed is complete, and will be 
found easy and comfortable in proportion to the care and skill shown in its construction. A blanket should be thrown
over the boughs before reclining to rest, as the fresh green gives forth considerable dampness.

If possible a rubber blanket should be used for this purpose. These consist of thick Canton flannel, coated on one 
side with Indian rubber, and are used with the rubber side down. They are warm and comfortable, and a valuable
acquisition to the trapper's outfit. There is a thinner and cheaper variety, having equal water-proof qualities but 
which does not possess the warmth of the former. Either will be found useful.

INSECT OINTMENTS.
These insects seem to have a special aversion for the scent of pennyroyal—an herb growing commonly in sandy
localities—and a single plant rubbed upon the face and hands will often greatly check their attacks.

The oil of pennyroyal is better, however, and an ointment made by straining one ounce of the oil into two or three 
ounces of pure melted lard, or mutton tallow, forms an excellent antidote. This may be carried in a little box or bottle,
in the pocket, and applied as occasion requires. Plain mutton tallow is also a most excellent ointment for general 
use, and in the case of bruises or slight wounds, will give great relief.

Another preparation in very common use amongst hunters and woodsmen, although not quite as agreeable in odor,
consists of a mixture of common tar and sweet oil, in equal parts. By some this liniment is considered superior to the
other, inasmuch as it also prevents tanning, and is beneficial to the complexion.

During the night time, the tent or shanty often becomes swarmed with the winged pests, and their nocturnal 
assaults are proverbial for their pertinacity and severity. Their thirst for blood overcomes every other instinct, and 
pennyroyal often ceases to have any effect. Our Adirondack guide, in narrating his experience with these insect 
vampires, even says that on a certain night, becoming exasperated at their indomitable perseverance, and, getting 
tired of the monotonous occupation of spreading ointment, he arose, lit his candle, and drove the creatures out of 
the tent. He then buttoned up the opening, and retired to rest. A storm came up in the night, and so completely had 
his canvas been riddled by the bills of the mosquitoes, that the rain poured through his tent as through a sieve.

We have heard of the man who, when pursued by hungry mosquitoes, took refuge beneath a large chaldron, and, 
by the aid of a stone, clinched the bloodthirsty bills as they protruded in quest of his life-blood, until, by the united
efforts of the winged captives, the chaldron was lifted and wafted out of sight, as if it were a feather.

One story is just as true as the other, and a summer in the Adirondack woods will tend to strengthen, rather than 
diminish, the belief in either. 

The smoke of smouldering birch bark will effectually drive away the mosquitoes from the tents at night. This method
is commonly known as "the smudge," and is more fully described in another part of this work. The smell of the 
smoke is often unpleasant at first, but it is always preferable to the insect bites.

Mosquitoes are not the only vampires which infest our wooded lands. The "punkeys" and "midgets" can outstrip 
them for voracity and the painful character of the wound which they inflict. The "punkey," or "black-fly," as it is 
called, is a small, black gnat, about the size of a garden ant, and the bite of the insect often results very seriously. 
The midget is a minute little creature, and is the most everlastingly sticky and exasperating pest in the catalogue of 
human torments. They fly in swarms of thousands, and go for their victim "en masse" and the face, hands and neck 
are soon covered as if with "hay seed." They stick where they first light, and commence operations immediately. All 
endeavors to shake them off are fruitless, and their combined attacks are soon most painfully realized. Their bites 
produce great redness and swelling, and the itching is most intolerable. 

Happily for the woodsman, the "smudge" and pennyroyal ointment are effectual preventives against the attacks of
both midgets and black flies, as well as mosquitoes; and no one who values his life or good looks should venture on
a woodland excursion in the summer months without a supply of this latter commodity. In conclusion, we would 
remark that, to the mosquito the blood of the intemperate seems to have a special attraction, and anyone who 
wishes to enjoy comparative freedom from the attacks of these pests, should abstain from the use of alcoholic 
stimulants. It is a too prevalent idea among trappers that whiskey and rum are necessary adjuncts to a trapping 
campaign, and many a trapper would about as soon think of leaving his traps at home as his whisky bottle. This is 
all a mistake. Anyone who has not sufficient strength of constitution to withstand the hardships and exposures of a 
trapping life, without the especial aid of stimulants, should stay at home. 

We are now alluding to the habitual use of such stimulants. It is always well to be provided with a flask of whisky or
brandy, in case of illness, but it should only be resorted to in such an event. For a mere chill, we recommend the 
use of red pepper tea. A simple swallow of this drink, (made simply by soaking a red pepper in a cup of hot water) 
will restore warmth much quicker than three times the amount of any alcoholic stimulant. It is not our purpose to 
extend into a lengthened temperance lecture, but only to discourage the wide-spread idea that stimulants are
necessities in the life of the trapper. Midgets, musquitoes and punkeys delight over a victim with alcohol in his veins,
and while to a healthy subject the bites are of only brief annoyance, to the intemperate they often result in painful,
obstinate sores.

In addition to the various ointments used, it is well to be provided with a headnet, such as we illustrate. Nets of this 
kind are specially made for sportsmen, and consist of a spiral wire framework, covered with mosquito netting, and of
such a size to slip easily on the head. They are easily made, as our engraving would indicate.

A netting attachment for the hat is also an acquisition, especially in open woods, free from overhanging branches or
dense thickets. Such a netting may be secured to the edge of the hat brim, and gathered with an elastic at the 
lower edge. This elastic will close snugly around the neck when in use, and at other times may be drawn above the 
brim and allowed to rest on top of the crown.

 

The portable hat brim, which we illustrate, is an article of trade in common use among sportsmen, and particularly 
the angler. Our engraving (a) shows the article separate. It is made of cloth, and is kept in its circular shape by a 
steel spring band at the circumference, between the two sides. It may be attached to any hat, and will act as a most 
effectual shelter to the rays of a hot sun.

The netting above alluded to may be attached to such a brim, and applied to the edge of the hat when desired. This
is shown at (b), which also indicates the manner of adjustment of the brim. Such a brim will often do good service, 
and may be obtained at almost any sporting emporium at trifling cost. It is portable in every sense of the word, being
easily bent and packed away in the pocket.

SNOW-SHOES.
These commodities are almost indispensable to the trapper where he pursues his vocation in the winter time, during
the prevalence of deep snows. When properly made they permit the wearer to walk over the surface of the snow 
with perfect ease; where, without them, travel would be extremely difficult if not impossible.

In the regions of perpetual snow, and also in Canada and neighboring districts, snow-shoes are very commonly 
worn. In the latter localities the "snow-shoe race" forms one of the favorite sports of the season, and young and old 
alike join in its mysteries. Like riding on the velocipede, walking on snow-shoes looks "easy enough," but we notice 
that a few somersaults are usually a convincing argument that the art is not as simple as it appears. 

The first experience on snowshoes is apt to be at least undignifying, if not discouraging, and in order to get used to 
the strange capers and eccentricities of an ordinarily well-behaved snow shoe, it requires considerable patience 
and practice. There is no telling where, in an unguarded moment, they will land you, and they seem to take especial 
delight in stepping on each other and turning their wearer upside down. 

The principal secret of success (and one may as well know it at the start, as to learn it at the expense of a pint of 
snow down his back) consists in taking steps sufficiently long to bring the widest portion of the stepping shoe 
beyond that of the other, keeping the feet rather far apart and stepping pretty high. By observing these precautions,
and trusting in Providence, much embarrassment may be saved, and an hour's effort will thoroughly tame the unruly
appendages, which at best do not permit of much grace or elegance of gait.

To the moose hunter snow-shoes are often an absolute necessity, and trapping in many cases would be impossible 
without them. They are thus brought fully within the scope of our volume, and we give a few simple directions for 
their manufacture. Our illustration gives the correct shape of the shoe. 

The framework should consist of a strip of ash, hickory or some other elastic wood, bent into the form indicated and 
wound around the ends with twine or strips of hide. The length of the piece should be about six feet, more or less, in
proportion to the size of the individual who proposes to wear the shoe. If the bending should prove difficult it may be
rendered an easy matter by the application of boiling water. 

Across the front part two strips of stout leather, or other tough hide, are then fastened, and these further secured 
together by three or four bands on each side of the middle, as our drawing shows.

In the original Indian snow-shoe, from which our drawing was made, the net work was constructed from strips of 
moose hide, which were interlaced much after the manner of an ordinary cane-seated chair. Strips of leather, deer 
skin, or even split cane, above alluded to, may also be used, and the lacing may be either as our illustration 
represents, or in the simpler rectangular woof seen in ordinary cloth.

In order to attach the interlacing to the bow the latter should be wound with wide strips of cane, if it can be procured, 
or otherwise with strips of tough skin. The loops thus formed offer a continuous security, and the whole interior, with 
the exception of the space at the front between the cross pieces, should be neatly filled with the next work. It is well 
to run the first lines across the shoe, from side to side, passing through the windings of the bow. Across them, in the
form of the letter X, the two other cords should be interlaced, after the manner shown in the cut. This forms a secure
and not very complicated network, and is the style usually adopted by the Indian makers.

There is another mode of attaching the lace-work to the bow which is also commonly employed, and consists in a 
series of holes bored at regular intervals through the wood. The winding is thus dispensed with, but the bow is 
sometimes weakened by the operation, and we are inclined to recommend the former method in preference.

In attaching the shoe, the ball of the foot should be set on the second cross piece, and there secured by a strip of 
hide, which should be first adjusted as seen in the engraving, being afterward tied over the foot and then behind the
ankle. Snow-shoes are made in other ways, but we believe that the typical Indian snow-shoe above described is the 
best.

THE TOBOGGAN OR INDIAN SLEDGE.
For winter traffic over deep snows there is no better sled in the world than the Indian toboggan. To the trapper 
during a winter campaign it is often an indispensable convenience, and without it the Indian hunters of the North 
would find great difficulty in getting their furs to market. All through the winter season the various trading posts of 
Canada are constantly visited by numbers of Indian trappers, many of whom have travelled hundreds of miles on 
their snow-shoes with their heavily laden toboggans. Arrived at their market they sell or trade their stock of furs, and
likewise dispose of their toboggans, reserving only their snow-shoes to aid them in their long tramp homewards.

In Canada and northward the toboggan is in very extensive use, both for purposes of traffic and amusement. It is 
quite commonly met with in the streets of various Canadian cities, and is especially appreciated by the youthful
population, who are fond of coasting over the crust of snow. For this purpose there is no other sled like it, and a 
toboggan of the size we shall describe will easily accommodate two or three boys, and will glide over a crust of snow 
with great ease and rapidity. 

To the trapper it is especially valuable for all purposes of transportation. The flat bottom rests upon the surface of 
the snow, and the weight being thus distributed a load of two or three hundred pounds will often make but little 
impression and can be drawn with marvellous ease. 

Our illustration gives a very clear idea of the sled, and it can be made in the following way: the first requisite is a 
board about eight feet in length and sixteen or more inches in width. Such a board may be procured at any saw mill. 
Oak is the best wood for the purpose, although hickory, basswood or ash will do excellently. It should be planed or 
sawed to a thickness of about a third of an inch, and should be free from knots. If a single board of the required 
width is not easily found, two boards may be used, and secured side by side by three cleats, one at each end and 
the other in the middle, using wrought nails and clinching them deeply into the board on the under side. The single 
board is much to be preferred, if it can be had. 

The next requisites are seven or eight wooden crosspieces of a length equivalent to the width of the board. Four old
broom-sticks, cut in the required lengths, will answer this purpose perfectly, and if these are not at hand other sticks
of similar dimensions should be used. Two side pieces are next needed. These should be about five feet in length, 
and in thickness exactly similar to the cross pieces. 

Next procure a few pairs of leather shoestrings or some strips of tough calf skin. With these in readiness we may 
now commence the work of putting the parts together. Begin by laying the cross pieces at equal distances along the
board; across these and near their ends lay the two side pieces, as seen in the illustration. By the aid of a gimlet or 
awl, four holes should now be made through the board, beneath the end of each cross piece, and also directly 
under the side piece. It is well to mark with a pencil, the various points for the holes, after which the sticks can be 
removed and the work much more easily performed. 

The four holes should be about an inch apart, or so disposed as to mark the four corners of a square inch. It is also 
necessary to make other holes along the length of the cross pieces, as seen in the illustration. The line on these 
can also be marked with the pencil across the board, and the holes made afterwards. These should also be an inch 
apart, and only two in number at each point, one on each side of the stick. When all the holes are made the board 
should be turned over, in order to complete preparations on the other side. The object of these various holes is for 
the passage of the leather shoestrings for the purpose of securing the cross pieces firmly to the board. In order to 
prevent these loops from wearing off on the under side, small grooves should next be made connecting the holes 
beneath, thus allowing the leather string to sink into the wood, where it is securely protected from injury. A narrow 
chisel is the best tool for this purpose, the making of the grooves being much more easily and perfectly 
accomplished with this than with the jack-knife. 

When the under side is thus finished the board may be turned over and the cross pieces and sides again arranged 
in place as already described. Secure the pieces to the board by the leather strings through the various holes, 
always knotting on the upper surface, and taking care that the knots are firmly tied. The ends of all the cross pieces 
will require a double cross stitch through the four holes beneath, in order to secure the side pieces as well. This is 
plainly shown in the small diagram (a).

The front end of each side piece underneath should now be sharpened to a point, to allow for the bend at the front 
of the toboggan. The cross piece at this end should be secured to the under side of the board, so that as it bends 
over it will appear on the upper edge, as our illustration shows. 

The board should next be bent with a graceful curve, and thus held in position by a rope or strip of leather at each 
extremity of the end cross piece and attached to the ends of the third cross piece, as seen in the engraving. If the 
bending is difficult and there is danger of breaking the board, the application of boiling water will render it pliable. 
The draw strings should then be attached to the ends of the second cross piece, and our toboggan is now 
complete.

It may now be laden with two or three hundred pounds of merchandize and will be found to draw over the surface of
the snow with perfect ease. For coasting over the crust there is nothing like it. Such a toboggan as we have
described will easily accommodate three boys, the one at the stern being provided with a sharp stick for steering, 
and the front occupant holding firmly to the draw strings. The toboggan is easily made, and will do good service 
either for traffic or sport.

CURING SKINS.
This department of the trapper's art is one of the most important and necessary, as affecting pecuniary profits. The
value of a skin in the fur market depends entirely upon the care with which it is taken from the animal and afterward
prepared, and without a knowledge on this subject the young trapper will in vain seek for high prices for his furs. 
Large quantities of valuable skins are sent to our markets annually by inexperienced amateur trappers, and in many
cases rare and beautiful furs have been almost spoiled by want of care in skinning and curing.

The rules are simple and easily followed, a little care being all that is necessary to insure most perfect success. In 
every case the skin should be removed shortly after death, or at least before it has become tainted with decay. 
Great pains should be taken in skinning. Avoid the adherence of flesh or fat to the skin, and guard against cutting 
through the hide, as a pierced skin is much injured in value. The parts about the eyes, legs and ears should be 
carefully removed. The various methods of skinning are described in our section on trapping, and in all cases the 
furs should be allowed to dry in a cool, airy place, free from the rays of the sun or the heat of a fire, and protected 
from rain.

Astringent preparations of various kinds are used by many trappers, but they are by no means necessary. The 
most common dressing consists of equal parts of rock salt and alum dissolved in water. Into this a sufficient amount 
of coarse flour or wheat bran is stirred to give the mixture the consistency of batter, after which it is spread thickly 
over the skin and allowed to dry.

It is afterwards scraped off, and in some cases a second application is made. This preparation is much used in 
dressing beaver, otter, mink and muskrat skins, but as many of our most successful and experienced trappers do 
without it, we fail to see the advantage of using it, as it is only an extra trouble. The simplest and surest way is to 
stretch the skin and to submit it to a gradual process of natural drying without any artificial heat or application of 
astringents to hasten the result.

A very common mode of stretching skins consists in tacking them to a board, with the fur inwards, and allowing them
to dry as already described. This method does very well for small skins, but for general purposes the "stretchers" 
are the only means by which a pelt may be properly cured and prepared.

STRETCHERS.
The board stretcher is the simplest form and is in most common use among trappers for the smaller animals. These 
stretchers are of two kinds, the plain and the wedged. The plain stretcher consists of a piece of board a quarter of 
an inch in thickness, about eighteen inches long and six inches in width. One end of this board is rounded off, as 
seen in our illustration, and the sides should also be whittled and smoothed to a blunt edge.

The board stretchers are used only for those skins which are taken off whole, that is, as described in the chapter on
the otter. The skin should be drawn tightly over the blunt end of the board, and its edges either caught in notches 
cut in the edges of the square end or secured by a few tacks. This stretcher is particularly adapted to the skins of 
muskrats, minks and animals of a like size. They are known in New England as "shingle stretchers," and are much to
be recommended on account of their lightness and the ease with which they can be made and carried.

The wedge stretcher is rather more elaborate than the foregoing, and is said to be an improvement.

The first requisite is a board of about three-eighths of an inch in thickness, two feet or more in length, and three and
a half inches at one end tapering to the width of two inches at the other. This end should now be rounded, and the 
edges of the board whittled off to a blunt edge, as already described in the foregoing, commencing near the centre 
of the board, and thinning to the edge, and finishing with the notches at the square end. Now, by the aid of a 
rip-saw, sever the board through the middle lengthwise.

The wedge is the next thing to be constructed, and should consist of a piece of wood the thickness of the centre of 
the board and of the same length, tapering from an inch in width at one end to half an inch at the other.

To use the stretcher the two boards are inserted into the skin, (the latter with the fur side inward). The wedge is 
then inserted between the large ends of the boards and driven in sufficiently to stretch the pelt to its full capacity, 
securing it in the notches by slight cuts in the hide, or by a tack or two at the edge. It should then he hung in a cool, 
airy place, and the pelt left to "season."

The bow stretcher is another contrivance very commonly used for small skins like the foregoing. When this is used 
the pelt should be skinned as described on page 185, the initial cut commencing at the lower jaw and extending 
down between the fore legs, all the feet being previously cut off. The bow may consist of a switch of any elastic 
wood such as hickory iron wood, elm or birch. It should be about three or more feet in length, and as large as a 
man's thumb at the butt end. By bending it in the shape of the letter U it may easily be inserted in the skin, the latter
being fastened by catching the lip on each side into a sliver notch cut on each end of the bow, as our illustration 
indicates.

For large animals, such as the deer, bear, beaver, the hoop stretcher is generally employed.

THE HOOP STRETCHER.
This consists of a hoop made from one or more flexible switches tied together so as to form a circle. In order to be 
adapted to this mode of stretching, the skin should be flat, i.e. taken off as described on page 172, the initial cut 
extending from the lower jaw to the vent. The size of the hoop required depends upon the dimensions of the skin. 
Lay the latter upon some flat surface and so gauge the hoop as that it shall surround the pelt on all sides; after 
which the latter should be secured or laced to the hoop with twine at the edges. All loose parts should be drawn up, 
and the skin should everywhere be stretched like a drum head. When this is accomplished it is the custom with 
many trappers to apply the preparation described on page 273, particularly where the skin is thick and fatty. But we 
are rather disposed to discourage the use of any preparation whatever, in any case, as they are by no means 
necessary.

In using the board stretchers the fur should always be on the inside, and when the hoop or bow is used it should be 
placed in such a position, that the air may circulate freely on both sides of the skin, which should not be removed 
until thoroughly dry.

TANNING SKINS.
In case some of our readers might desire to tan fur skins for their own domestic purposes, the subjoined directions 
will be found to be reliable, and for all ordinary requirements, sufficiently adequate.

For tanning with the hair on, the skin should first be cleaned, every particle of loose fat or flesh, being removed, 
and the useless parts cut away. When this is done, it should be soaked for an hour or two in warm water. The 
following mixture should then be prepared: Take equal parts of borax, saltpetre, and sulphate of soda, and with 
them mix water sufficient to produce the consistency of thin batter.

This preparation should be painted thickly on the flesh side of the skin, after which these sides should be doubled 
together and the pelt left in an airy place. A second mixture should next be prepared. This should consist of two 
parts sal soda; three parts borax; four parts castile or other hard soap: all to be melted together over a slow fire. At 
the end of twenty-four hours, after the application of the first mixture, the second should be applied in a similar 
manner, and the fur again folded and left for the same length of time. Next, make a mixture equal parts of salt and 
alum, dissolved in warm water and thickened with coarse flour to the consistency of thin paste. Spread this thickly 
over the skin and allow it to dry, after which it should be scraped off with the bowl of a spoon. The skin should be 
tightly stretched during the operation, in order to prevent too great shrinkage. A single application of the last-named
dressing, is generally sufficient for small skins; but a second or third treatment may be resorted to if required, to
make the skin soft and pliable, after which it should be finished off with sandpaper and pumice stone. A skin may be 
thus dressed as soft as velvet, and the alum and salt will set the hair securely.

The above directions are excellent, for all general purposes, but we subjoin, in addition, a few other valuable hints 
and specific recipes in common use. Every trapper has his own peculiar hobby in regard to his tanning process, 
and the recipes are various and extensive. The above is one of the most reliable for general use. A common mode 
of tanning mink and muskrat skins is given in the following:—

TO TAN MINK AND MUSKRAT SKINS.
Before tanning, the skin should always be thoroughly cleansed in warm water, and all fat and superfluous flesh 
removed. It should then be immersed in a solution made of the following ingredients: 

	Five gallons of cold soft water; 
	five quarts wheat bran; 
	one gill of salt; and 
	one ounce of sulphuric acid. 

Allow the skins to soak in the liquid for four or five hours. If the hides have been previously salted, the salt should be
excluded from the mixed solution. The skins are now ready for the tanning liquor, which is made in the following way:
into five gallons of warm, soft water, stir one peck of wheat bran and allow the mixture to stand in a warm room until 
fermentation takes place. Then add three pints of salt, and stir until it is thoroughly dissolved. A pint of sulphuric 
acid should then be poured in gradually, after which the liquor is ready. 

Immerse the skins and allow them to soak for three or four hours. The process of "fleshing" is then to be resorted to.
This consists in laying the skin, fur side down, over some smooth beam, and working over the flesh side with a blunt 
fleshing tool. An old chopping knife, or tin candlestick, forms an excellent substitute for the ordinary fleshing knife, 
and the process of rubbing should be continued until the skin becomes dry, after which it will be found to be soft and
pliable. The skin of the muskrat is quite tender, and the fleshing should be carefully performed.

HOW TO TAN THE SKINS OF BEAVER, OTTER, RACCOON, AND MARTEN.
These should be stretched on a board and smeared with a mixture composed of three ounces each, of salt and 
alum; three gills of water, and one drachm of sulphuric acid. This should be thickened with wheat bran or flour, and 
should be allowed to dry on the skin, after which it should be scraped off with a spoon.

Next, take the skin from the board, roll it with the fur inside, and draw it quickly backward and forward, over a smooth
peg, or through an iron ring. The skin should then be unfolded and rolled again the opposite way, and the operation
repeated until the pelt is quite soft and flexible. This is a good way of softening all kinds of skins, and the above 
preparation will be found excellent for all ordinary purposes. The muskrat skin may be treated in the same manner 
as the above, if desired, and the process directed on the muskrat skin may also be applied to the pelts of the other 
animals.

To remove the fur for a simple tanned skin, the hide should be immersed in a liquid composed of—
	soft water, five gallons; 
	slaked lime, four quarts; and 
	wood ashes, four quarts. 
Allow the skin to soak for a couple of days, after which the fur will readily slip off.

Another method—take equal parts wood ashes and slaked lime, and add water to the consistency of batter. Spread
this over the inside of the skin, roll it up, and place it in a pail, covering it with water. Here let it remain from one to 
five days, or until the hair will shed easily, after which it should be finished with the fleshing knife and velveted with 
sand paper.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE HISTORY OF FURS AND THE FUR TRADE.
In all cold climates, man has availed himself liberally of the warm covering with which nature has clothed the animals 
around him; but the wealth of the most favored nations has drawn to them the most beautiful furs, in whatever part
of the world they are procured. Skins of animals were among the first materials used for clothing. Before Adam and 
Eve were driven from the Garden of Eden, they were furnished with coats of skins. The ancient Assyrians used the 
soft skins of animals to cover the couches or the ground in their tents, and the Israelites employed badger's skins 
and ram's skins, as ornamental hangings for the Tabernacle. The ancient heroes of the Greeks and Romans, are 
represented as being clothed in skins. Æneas, wearing for an outer garment, that of the lion, and Alcestes being 
formidably clad in that of the Libyan Bear. Herodotus speaks of those living near the Caspian Sea wearing seal 
skins, and Cæsar mentions that the skin of the reindeer formed in part the clothing of the Germans. 

In the early period, furs appear to have constituted the entire riches of the Northern countries, and they were almost
the only exports. Taxes were paid on them, and they were the medium of exchange. So it was also in our own 
Western territories in the latter part of the last century, and is to the present day, to a great extent, among the 
Indians. 

In the eleventh century, furs had become fashionable throughout Europe, and the art of dyeing them, was practiced 
in the twelfth. In the history of the Crusades, frequent mention is made of the magnificent displays by the European 
Princes, of their dresses of costly furs, before the Court at Constantinople. But Richard I. of England, and Philip II. of
France, in order to check the growing extravagance in their use, resolved that the choicer furs, ermine and sable 
amongst the number, should be omitted from their kingly wardrobes. Louis IX. followed their example in the next 
century, but not until his extravagance had grown to such a pitch, that seven hundred and forty-six ermines were 
required for the lining of one of his surcoats. 

In the times, the use of the choicer furs, as those of the sable, ermine, gris, and Hungarian squirrel, was restricted to
the royal families and the nobility, to whom they served as distinctive marks and badges of rank. These privileged 
persons applied them lavishly to their own use, and the fashion extended to the princes of other less civilized 
nations. Their royal use soon extended to Tartary, and the tents of the Khan were bedecked with the most rich and 
costly furs. 

In the following century, furs were commonly worn in England until their use was prohibited by Edward III., to all 
persons whose purse would not warrant a yearly expenditure of £100.

The early fur trade of Western Europe, was conducted through the merchants on the south coast of the Baltic, who 
received goods from the ports of Livonia. In the sixteenth century, a direct trade was opened between the English 
and Russians; and a company of the former, protected by the Czar, established trading posts on the White Sea, 
and a warehouse at Moscow, whence they sent trading parties to Persia and the countries on the Caspian Sea. 
The Czar sent rich presents of beautiful furs, to Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth; but the latter prohibited the 
wearing of any but native furs, and the trade soon declined and was abandoned. 

In the 17th century, Siberia was conquered by the Russians, and its tribute was paid in furs. Large quantities were 
also furnished to China, but the choicest kinds—the precious ermine, the brilliant, fiery foxes, and the best sables, 
were taken to Moscow, for the use of the princes and nobles of Russia, Turkey, and Persia.

In our own country, the early settlers of the Northern provinces, soon learned the value of the furs of the numerous 
animals which peopled the extensive rivers, lakes, and forests of these vast territories. They collected the skins in
abundance, and found an increasing demand for them, with every new arrival of immigrants from the mother 
country. Trinkets, liquors, and other articles sought for by the native tribes, were shipped to Quebec, and from 
thence up the St. Lawrence to Montreal, which soon became the great trading post of the country.

The various tribes of Indians were stimulated by trifling compensation, to pursue their only congenial and peaceful 
occupation; and the French settlers, readily assimilating to the Indian habits, became themselves expert hunters, 
trappers, and explorers.

The business prospered, and the English soon became interested and secured a share of the valuable trade. Many
wealthy and influential parties, connected with the government of Great Britain,—Prince Rupert and Lord Ashley, 
among the number—became deeply interested in this source of revenue; and after a successful enterprise, they 
obtained from Charles II., a charter of incorporation, giving to them full possession of the territory within the 
entrance of Hudson's Straits, not already granted to other subjects, or possessed by those of any other Christian 
prince or State. 

In this charter was included the monopoly, of all trade in these regions, and thus we see the origin of the Great 
Hudson's Bay Company, which is to-day, one of the largest organizations of its kind on the globe. The territory they 
claimed, extended from Hudson's Bay, west to the Pacific, and north to the Arctic Ocean, excepting that occupied by
the French and Russians.

They soon formed settlements upon the various rivers which empty into Hudson's Bay, and carried on their 
operations with immense vigor and success. They met with much opposition and open hostility from the French, and
were subjected to vast expenses and losses, but in spite of all, they continued to prosper. Their forts or factories 
were extended further into the interior of British America, and their power was supreme throughout the country, and 
in a great measure over the Indians, whom they employed to collect their skins. 

In the course of time, the French Canadians organized themselves into a united band, under the name of the North 
West Company, and established their headquarters at Montreal. Their operations were carried on with great energy
and profit, and many factories were built in the western portion of the Province. The company thus soon became a 
formidable competitor with the Hudson's Bay Company and for a period of two years, an actual state of war existed 
between them. This condition of affairs finally terminated in a consolidation of the two organizations, under the name
of the Hudson's Bay Company, the privileges of which extended over all the territory formerly occupied by both.

Thus, we have the history of the famous Hudson's Bay Company, from its origin to its perfect organization. It is a 
most stupendous concern, and its annual shipment of furs, is something amazing. Their great sales take place in 
the month of March, in order to be completed before Easter; and again in September, every year at London, and 
are attended by purchasers from nearly all parts of the world. Leipsic, the famous fur mart of Germany, is also the 
scene of a great annual fair, for the sale of skins.

The importance of the fur trade in this country, led to the early settlement of the Western territories of the United 
States; and many a frontier city, like St. Paul, has been built up by the enterprise of the trapper. Mackinaw and 
Montreal owe much of their growth to the traffic of the fur trade; and many a kingly fortune—John Jacob Astor's, for 
instance—has been founded on peltry.

Besides the above fur sales in London a moderate portion of those annually collected in the United States are 
retained for use, amounting to about 150,000 mink and 750,000 muskrat skins, besides a number of other furs 
which are manufactured and worn.

The annual yield of raw furs throughout the whole world is estimated at over twenty millions of dollars in value; and 
when we include the manufactured articles therefrom, the amount will swell to a hundred millions or over. This will
serve to give some idea of the immensity and value of the business.

American dealers divide our native furs into two classes, viz., home and shipping furs; the former being chiefly 
utilized in our own country, while the latter are exported to all parts of the world. New York City is the great fur mart
and depot for the shipping trade in this country, and the annual value of its exports, in this one branch of trade is 
enormous.

The principal shipping furs are the silver, red and cross Fox, Wild Cat, Raccoon, Fisher, Muskrat and Skunk.

Among the home furs are the Marten, Mink, Opossum, Wolf and Muskrat, the latter being extensively used both 
here and abroad.

In the following chapter will be found more detailed notes on the leading American furs, including their various uses 
and the different countries for which they are the especial staples.

In order to give the reader some idea of the variety and magnitude of the yield of furs from our own country, we 
annex a table (p. 282) showing the sales of the Hudson's Bay Company, at London, in the year 1873.

MARKET VALUE OF FUR SKINS.
Below will be found an authentic table of the comparative values of the various American furs at the present date of 
publication. The quotations are those of one of our largest fur dealers, as published in "THE HAT, CAP AND FUR 
TRADE REVIEW," the leading journal of the trade in America. Of course these values are constantly varying—
keeping pace with the eccentricities of fashion and the demands of the fur trade; but the table will serve at least to
gauge the relative values, as between the two extremes of common and scarce furs. The fur market is a great deal 
like the stock market. It is constantly fluctuating, and a fur which is to-day among the novelties, may next year find
itself on the low priced list. The demand for furs of any kind is nearly always governed by fashion, and of course the 
value is estimated on the demand. If the convention of fur dealers should decide to usher in Muskrat fur as the 
leading and most fashionable article in that line, the fashion would create the demand, the demand would be in turn 
supplied by the trappers throughout the country, and in proportion as the Muskrat skins became scarce, so their 
value would increase. In this way a skin which may be worth fifty cents at one time may soon acquire a value of 
twenty times that amount. The comparative value of skins is, therefore, constantly varying more or less; but the 
annexed table (page 283) will be found useful for general reference, and for approximate figures, will probably
answer every purpose for some time to come.

Notwithstanding all these advertised prices, the young trapper often experiences great difficulty in a profitable 
disposal of his furs. Like every other business, the fur trade runs in its regular grooves, and the average furrier will
often pay an experienced professional five dollars for a skin for which he would not offer a dollar to an amateur. This
certainly seems discouraging, but the knowledge of the fact is calculated to prevent greater discouragement.

We often see fancy prices advertised by fur dealers for first-class skins; but when the furs are sent, only a few are 
selected as "prime," the rest being rejected as worthless, or perhaps meeting with a meagre offer far below the 
regular rates. In this way the dealers have the opportunity of choice selection without incurring any risk. Many a
young trapper has been thus disappointed, and has seen his small anticipated fortune dwindle down to very small 
proportions.

The fur trade is supplied through regular professional channels; and in giving our advice to the novice, we would 
recommend as the most satisfactory and profitable plan that he should make his sales to some local hunter or 
trapper, who has had experience with the fur trade, and who is satisfied to pay a fair price for the various skins with 
the probability of selling at an advance, and thus realizing a profit.

In nearly every trapping locality such men are to be found, and although the prices earned may be below the market
rates, the amateur takes none of the speculative risks of the business, and should be willing to take lower prices on
this account.

AMERICAN FUR SKINS—THEIR USES AT HOME AND ABROAD.
In the early history of fur apparel, its use was determined by climate; to-day, and especially in this country, it is 
regulated by the caprice of fashion. The mink for many years took the lead in the list of fashionable furs, but has of 
late been superseded by the introduction of the fur seal. The most choice and costly of our American furs at the 
present day is the Silver Fox. When highly dressed they are worth from 10 to 50 guineas each in the European 
market. They are principally bought by the Russians and Chinese.

The skins of the Red Fox are purchased by the Chinese, Greeks, Persians, and other Oriental nations. They are
made into linings for robes, etc., and ornamented with the black fur of the paws which is set on in spots or waves. 

The fur of the Beaver was formerly highly prized in the manufacture of hats. and yielded a large portion of the 
profits of the Fur Companies, constituting the largest item in value among furs. Cheaper materials have since been 
substituted in making hats, and the demand for this purpose has been greatly reduced. By a new process the skin 
is now prepared as a handsome fur for collars and gauntlets, and its fine silky wool has been successfully woven. 
The soft, white fur from the belly of the animal, is largely used in France for bonnets.

Raccoon skins are the great staple for Russia and Germany, where, on account of their durability and cheapness, 
they are in demand for linings for coats, etc. 

Among the Bear skins, those of the black and grizzly are extensively used for military caps, housings, holsters, 
sleigh robes, etc,

The fur of the Lynx is soft, warm and light, and is commonly dyed of a beautiful shining black. It is used for the 
facings and linings of cloaks, chiefly in America.

The Fisher yields a dark and full fur which is largely used in fashionable winter apparel.

The skin of the Marten, is richly dyed and utilized in choice furs and trimmings.

The Mink, like the two foregoing, belongs to the same genus as the Russian Sable, and its fur so much resembles 
the latter as to be sometimes mistaken for it. It is one of fashion's furs, and the hair of the tail is sometimes used in 
the manufacture of artist's pencils.

The Muskrat produces the fur most worn by the masses, and is largely exported into Germany, France and 
England. It is estimated that over six millions of muskrat skins are annually taken in America, and of that number
one-half are used in Germany alone.

The skin of the Otter is at present classed among the leading fashionable furs in this country. They are dyed of a 
deep purplish black color, and are made into sacques, muffs, etc. It is also used by the Russians, Greeks and 
Chinese. It is mostly an American product, but is also procured to some extent in the British Isles from a smaller 
variety of the species.

The skins of the Wolf are chiefly used for sleigh robes and such purposes. 

The fur of the Rabbit is mainly employed in the manufacture of felt, and is also utilized for lining and trimming. The 
business of breeding rabbits for their fur has been introduced into the United States, and large numbers have been
successfully raised in Danbury, Conn., for felting purposes connected with the manufacture of hats.

The fur of the Wolverine or Glutton, finds a market for the most part in Germany, where it is used for trimmings and 
cloak linings.

The Skunk furnishes the fur known as Alaska Sable, which forms one of our staple pelts, many thousands being 
annually exported to Poland and the adjacent provinces.

The Badger yields a valuable and fashionable fur, which is also extensively used in the manufacture of artist's 
brushes; a good "badger blender" forming a valuable accessory to a painter's outfit. Shaving brushes by the 
thousand are annually made from the variegated hair of the badger.

The Opossum yields a fur in very common use among the masses, and the skins of the domestic Cat are utilized to 
a considerable extent in the manufacture of robes, mats, etc. 

The fur of the Puma and Wild Cat are also employed in this form, and may often be seen handsomely mounted and 
hanging on the backs of sleighs on our fashionable thoroughfares. 

Among the small game the skins of Squirrels are used for linings, and the soft, velvety fur of the Mole is 
manufactured into light robes, and very fine hats, and in theatrical paraphernalia is sometimes employed for artificial
eyebrows.

Full descriptions of the color of the various furs will be found in our lengthy illustrated chapter on our American 
animals.

End of Excerpt.
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