Trail Blazing, Signaling & Navigation
TRAILS. BLAZING A WAY. SIGNALLING. DIRECTION & DISTANCE. MEASURING HEIGHTS & DISTANCES.

ONE may camp out for years and never acquire a knowledge of woodcraft if hired guides or woodsmen are 
employed, but one never knows when a knowledge of woodcraft, of trailing, or of similar matters, may be necessary.
It is an easy method to depend upon one's guides and never give a thought to the mysteries of woodcraft, but it is 
much wiser to be able to depend upon yourself and to feel confident that you can follow a trail, find your way or eke 
out a living in the woods without any one to aid you, and every camper should strive to become as skilled in 
woodcraft as the professional guide.

Not only is such a knowledge valuable and important as a safeguard, but in addition the pleasures of out of door life
are greatly enhanced if the camper is a good woodsman, able to follow a trail, to find his way or to travel through 
the forest by nature's signs, and to convey his wishes and directions by means of signals from a distance; in short, 
to feel no fear or hesitation about going anywhere in the wilderness without danger of going astray or of suffering 
from want.

The question of becoming lost is a very grave one, even in fairly small areas of forest, and many a camper loses 
much of the enjoyment of his stay in the woods through fear of going astray if he wanders out of sight of camp.

The first thing every camper should learn in regard to woodcraft is to follow a trail. In our northern forests, trails or 
routes are usually indicated by marks or "blazes" cut on the trees, and while these may prove meaningless and 
confusing to the novice, yet they are very easy to understand and convey a clear story to the woodsman. Indeed,
we often speak of a person "leaving a blazed trail behind him," when we wish to convey the idea that his footsteps 
are easy to follow, and for the same reason, we hear of explorers and pioneers "blazing a way for civilization."

Almost any one can follow a blazed trail by looking for the spots or blazes on the trees, but it is quite a different 
matter for one to "read" the trail and proceed accordingly, for there are numerous forms of these marks, and each 
form, as well as its position, has a definite meaning. Once these meanings are learned, one can follow any trail as 
easily and surely as if the way were marked by signposts, for the blazes, like pigeon-English, is a "lingua franca" of 
the woods, and is understood by all versed in woodcraft.

As with every other rule, there are exceptions to this, however, and quite frequently one may come upon blazes 
which convey no meaning whatever, even to the experienced woodsman. But these are usually of no real value or 
importance, for they are merely private marks, indicating some particular location, trap or other item of interest only 
to the maker or his companions.

All regular blazes may be classed under three general heads: the first consisting of a single mark or blaze; the 
second of two blazes side by side, and the third, of three or more marks, one over another. The first is the ordinary 
everyday trail mark, used to denote the path or trail; the second shows turns or direction, and the last warns of
danger, or spots where caution is necessary before proceeding.

These three classes of blazes are illustrated in Figs, 1, 2, 3, 4. In Fig. 1, the single mark or trail blaze is shown. Such 
a mark means that you should proceed straight ahead to the next mark. When such a blaze as in Fig, 2 is seen, you
should turn to the right and look about for the next single mark, while if you come to the mark shown in Fig, 3, a turn
to the left should be made.

Three spots in perpendicular line, as in Fig. 4, show that danger is near, and you should move carefully. It may be a
bad windfall, a hidden hole or gorge, a trap, or any other danger, and as long as the three marks are in sight, go 
forward slowly and cautiously until the regular single marks again appear. Sometimes the position of the danger is
indicated by a mark at one side, but in any case the three marks are equivalent to a red flag or a red light, and call 
for caution.

In addition to these three simple forms of blazes, there are various combinations in which two or more are used, as
illustrated in Figs. 5, 6, 7, Thus, in Fig. 5, the blazes indicate that danger lurks to the right, and hence you should 
pass to the left, while Fig. 6 shows a danger at left, and consequently you should turn to the right. Fig. 7, however, 
indicates a survey line, and warns the woodsman not to cut or injure the trees upon which it appears.

Still other combinations are shown in Figs, 8, 9. These are camp marks, as indicated by the long perpendicular 
blaze, while the marks to right or left and below show whether the camp site lies to right or left of the trail. Such 
marks as are shown in Figs, 10, 11, are private blazes and of importance only to those who made them, or to those 
who understand their significance.

When a trail is frequently traversed, the way is kept plain by each passing traveller chopping blazes afresh, and so, 
on a well-used trail, practically every tree will bear a blaze and one may follow it rapidly and easily. An old trail, or 
one which is seldom used, may be very difficult to follow, however, for the blazes become weathered and healed, 
and it is often very hard to find the marks.

Whenever you go into a strange forest, or when one of the party is straggling behind, you should always blaze a 
trail for the others to follow. It is an easy matter to whack off a bit of the trees, as you walk along, and this fresh trail 
will serve to guide those behind you, as well as to enable you to retrace your steps with ease and certainty. In case 
you wish to identify your own trail or to indicate your presence to others, you should make your blazes of distinctive 
size or form. An old woodsman can recognise the trail marks of all his friends and acquaintances by the form or 
position of their blazes.

You will soon find that, with a little practise, it is very easy to blaze a good trail, and that it takes little time to do so, 
as you tramp through the woods, for all you have to do is to chop a bit of bark from the trees, a few rods apart. 
Don't make the marks either too high or too low, for, in the first case, they are hard to see, and, in the second, they 
may become concealed by brush, while if made about the height of one's shoulder, they will catch the eye readily.

While blazes are most extensively used in indicating trails through a forested country, it is impossible to mark a trail 
in this way where trees are scarce or absent. But it is just as easy to indicate a trail or to follow one in such places 
as it is to make or follow a blazed trail in the woods. There are several methods of doing this, and the trail in open 
country may be marked by stones, bent or broken twigs, or wisps or bunches of grass or reeds, as shown in 
Figs. 12 to 23.

But, no matter which method is employed, the same symbols and combinations are used as on a blazed trail. Thus, 
one stone or another, a single bent or broken branch, or a single tied or twisted bunch of grass, as in Figs. 12, 16, 
20, shows the straight trail. A stone to right or left of a trail mark, a twig pointing to either side, or a bunch of grass 
pointed to right or left, as in Figs, 13, 14, 17, 18, 21, 22, indicates a turn, while three stones, a separate twig resting 
on another, or three wisps of grass, means danger or caution. Figs, 15,19, 23.

Much time may profitably be spent in learning to make and read these various trail marks, and until you are sure of 
your memory and of the meaning of all these symbols, you should carry a slip of paper or a card on which the 
various marks and their meanings are shown.

Oftentimes you may find yourself in strange woods, where there are no blazed trails and while, by blazing a trail as 
you proceed, you may be able to retrace your steps, yet this will not enable you to reach your objective point or 
prevent you from going in a roundabout, erratic manner from one place to another. A compass is a great help, and
you should always carry one, but unless you know in which direction you wish to go or the direction in which your 
objective point lies from your camp, the compass will serve merely to guide you in a straight line and to prevent you 
from travelling in a circle. If about to trail through a strange country, always strive to secure the bearings of some
prominent landmark, such as hills, rivers, mountains, etc., and the really proficient woodsman should instinctively 
note such landmarks and bear their position in mind as he proceeds.

Moss on trees or rocks often indicates the points of the compass, but this varies a great deal in various places, and
it often puzzles an expert to decide on which side of an object the moss is thickest.

Dead or stunted branches on one side of a tree usually indicate the northern side, and by training your eyes to 
note the little differences between the opposite sides of trees, and many other little details, you will soon find that 
you can tell which is north and which south, although you cannot easily explain just how you know.

If there is a bright sun, a watch may be made to serve as a compass, on a pinch. If the dial is held horizontally, with 
the hour hand pointing at the sun and so that the shadow of the hour hand is directly under the hand itself, then 
half the distance between that point and the figure 12 will be south, if before noon, and, counting from left
to right, or southward, and if afternoon, counting backward, or from right to left. (Fig, 27.) Of course, this is only 
approximate, and it varies more or less with the season and latitude, but it will serve roughly as a guide, and to 
denote the points of the compass, and will prevent you from walking in a circle, which is the greatest danger when 
lost in the woods.

But there is no danger of this happening if you make it a rule to blaze a trail as you proceed, for, by sighting back to
the last two or three marks, you can always follow a fairly straight line.

Although blazed trails and similar marks will be found of the utmost value in guiding you through the woods, there 
are limits to their usefulness, and the messages or signals which may be conveyed by marks on trees, stones, bent 
twigs or bunches of grass, often fall far short of one's requirements.

Oftentimes it is essential that you should be able to communicate with other members of your party when at a 
distance, or, in case one of the party is lost, it is of the utmost importance that you should be able to let him know of
your position or the position of the camp, or that he should have means of notifying his friends of his plight.

In case of accidents, also, a means of communicating one's position may make all the difference between life and 
death, while still another valuable use for signaling is when various members of a party separate in search of game,
water, camping places, etc. Then any discoveries made by one member of the party may be communicated to the 
others, and all may be brought together without loss of time or weary hours of tramping unnecessarily.

Among savage peoples, various methods of signaling are employed, and, while some of these are very intricate 
and complicated, others are very simple, and you will be surprised to find how much information may be conveyed 
by the simplest codes and methods.

There are various means of signaling, but for long distances fires or smokes are most widely used. In case of bright
sunlight or in open country, as well as on high hills, unobstructed by trees, signals are often made by flashes of 
light, while at comparatively short distances, hats, flags or other objects may be used.

Smokes are particularly useful where the country is wooded or there are no high eminences, and on a calm day a 
good smoke signal may be seen for an extremely long distance. Fires at night serve the same purpose, while the 
flash of a mirror or a bright metal surface may be seen for many miles. This is the basis of the heliograph used by 
the army, and while a real heliograph may easily be made, a pocket mirror will serve all ordinary purposes.

No matter which system is used, the ordinary signals are similar to the symbols described for trail marks. Thus one 
smoke, fire or flash, indicates location; two smokes, fires or flashes, indicate trouble or the desire for aid, while 
three smokes, fires or flashes, convey good news or that a hunt or search has been successful. Last of all, are four
signals, which are used to summon all members of the party to a common meeting place or to camp.

These are all illustrated in Figs. 24, 25, 26, and by adding others, or varying these, or by arranging combinations 
among the various members of the party, almost any message or even a long conversation,  may be carried on. A 
better way is to use the telegraphic code, and as the standard Morse code has many spaced dots, which are 
difficult to signal, and as the Continental has none, the latter is by all means the best code to use, as follows:

DD means a call or "signaling." WW means "answering." FF means "spelling." IMI means "repeat." AAA means "full 
stop." G means "go on." MG means "wait." RT means "right." FI means "numeral."

If you do not know the code or do not care to learn it you can carry a copy with you and by referring to it you will be 
able to send or read any message by means of smokes, fires or flashes. In thus signaling, a dot is represented by 
one flash, smoke or fire of about one second's duration, a dash should be two seconds and a space four seconds, 
while for a full stop, or space between words, a space of six to ten seconds should be allowed.

To use the code with a fire, a blanket or coat should be held in front of the fire and by removing this for the proper 
length of time a dot or dash may be indicated while the fire should be hidden for four to ten seconds according to 
whether a space between letters or words is desired. Smoke signals are made by building a good fire, covering it 
with damp wood, leaves or sod until a dense smoke rises, and using a wet blanket, coat or canvas to stop the 
smoke. If this is quickly removed and replaced various sized puffs of smoke are produced and these indicate the 
dots and dashes of the code. 

In the same way a short flash from a mirror indicates a dot and a longer flash a dash while the intervals between 
show spaces or stops according to their length.

When the signaler is within view of those to whom he is signaling a stick with a flag, and a cap or hat may be used 
to transmit the code. The stick or flag should be held in one hand and the cap in the other. The stick, board or flag 
means a dash and the cap means a dot while both arms lowered indicates a space and both arms up means a full 
stop (Fig, 28).

Still another method is to use two flags of different colours or shapes and, by arranging beforehand which colour or 
shape means a dot and which a dash, a code may be used which is unintelligible to all save those in the secret.

A very important item in woodcraft is the ability to judge direction and distance. Many people possess a sort of sixth 
sense by which they unconsciously know the direction in which they are moving, or the relative positions of places, 
and no matter how often they turn or move about they never become confused or go astray, indeed, it is really a 
sort of instinct and is absolutely lacking in the majority of people. It is a natural gift to be able to do this, but nearly 
every one possesses some idea of direction and, if developed by practice and observation, the average person 
can learn to carry direction and relative positions in his mind to a remarkable degree.

To judge distances accurately is more a matter of practice and judgment than anything else, and many woodsmen 
are wonderfully expert at this. The average man is a very poor judge of distance, especially in the woods, and no 
two people will have the same idea of a distance tramped, or of one object from another. Moreover, a man who is 
able to judge distances in one locality, or under certain familiar conditions, may be absolutely at a loss under other 
conditions or in other places, for the atmospheric conditions, the elevation, the character of the country, the hour of
the day and one's own physical condition have much to do with one's ideas of distances. For example, the first time
a person walks over a certain trail or route the way invariably seems longer than after the trail becomes familiar and
a distance always seems shorter when one is fresh than when one is tired or hungry. So too, in rough or hilly 
country, or in heavy woods, a ten mile tramp may seem twenty miles or more, while, if one is hunting or interested in 
the surroundings, a long distance may seem very short. In hazy weather objects appear further away than in clear 
weather; on moonlight nights nearer than on dark nights; in early morning nearer or farther than at midday or 
evening and, when seen from a height, distant places may appear close at hand. All these factors must be taken 
into consideration when judging of distance and much practice under varying conditions is necessary before a 
person can hope to guess a distance within many miles under all conditions.

It may seem a matter of little importance to be able to judge distances correctly, but in reality it is a very important 
branch of woodcraft. If you know a certain locality is a definite distance away you must be able to judge distances in 
order to know when you reach the desired spot, or again, you may often see a hill, mountain, lake or river which you
wish to reach and unless you can judge of its distance, as well as bear in mind its direction while travelling towards 
it, you will not know how much time will be required to reach it or how far or in what direction to travel to it.

In such cases the ability to judge direction and distance, and to follow the route in mind unerringly, is of great 
importance, for the object you seek may be invisible or hidden from sight as you proceed towards it, and unless 
your mind is trained to woodcraft you may miss the desired spot or be obliged to wander about and do a lot of 
unnecessary travelling before you find it.

Still another matter which should be given attention is a knowledge of how to measure the height of objects, the 
elevation of land above water, or the height of a hill above level country, the distance across ravines, lakes or 
streams, etc., and to do this with real accuracy, which is a very simple matter once you know how.

I have already mentioned the compass and while nearly every one has some idea of the use of a compass and its 
various points few persons can name more than the eight cardinal points or can lay a course or route by compass 
and follow it. Under ordinary conditions the fact that a place was north, east, south, west or northeast, southeast,
etc., might be sufficient; but if one is following a trail through the woods, across a plain or prairie, or over a lake or 
large body of water, the difference of a point or two in the compass bearings might cause you to miss your 
destination completely.

On short distances such a slight variation might make no difference, but on a tramp or voyage of twenty-five miles 
or more the deviation of a quarter point from the exact bearings would make a vast difference at the end of the trip. 
This is easily understood when you stop to realize that two straight lines, drawn from the centre of a circle outward, 
always form an angle and that the two sides of this angle separate more and more the further they are extended, so
the greater the distance to be travelled, the more careful you must be to lay and follow your course by compass.

Hence, when travelling with a compass as a guide, you must refer to the instrument frequently and must correct 
your course each time and unless you take care you may go astray in doing this. The best plan is to make a sketch 
or plan of the proposed route, with starting and objective points indicated, and with a straight line connecting the
two and laid down accurately with the compass bearings. Then, by frequently comparing your plan with your 
compass as you proceed, judging the distances travelled and noting each deviation or alteration in your course on 
the sketch, you can reach the desired spot with accuracy. This is exactly what a sailor does when navigating by
dead reckoning. 

Of course the necessity of this procedure is evident if there are obstacles or obstructions in your way while, if 
crossing a lake or level land where a straight course may be followed, it is scarcely necessary. Thus, if you find your
objective point is northeast of your starting point you may be obliged to travel southeast in order to go around some
swamp, cliff, pond or other obstruction and unless you can judge the distance you travel southeast and jot this and 
the direction you have travelled on your sketch map you will find it extremely difficult to get back on your original 
course. This is more readily understood by referring to Fig. 29, which shows a rough sketch of a route from a camp 
site by a lake to a mountain pass. 

Although the pass lies due northeast from the camp, yet the route travelled was so circuitous and indirect that the 
traveler moved in nearly every direction, even going southwest at times, in traversing the course, and if he had 
depended entirely upon his sense of direction, or upon an occasional glance at his compass, he would have gone 
hopelessly astray as shown by the dotted line, which indicates the course he would have followed had he always
moved in a northeasterly direction each time he referred to his compass, or if he had failed to record his movements
on the map. But don't expect your compass to "show you the way." It is a very useful instrument if understood and
properly used, but it possesses no supernatural powers and its value depends upon your own common sense and 
knowledge; without this a compass is utterly useless. .

In addition to the compass there are many other ways of determining one's position or of following a fairly direct line.
Thus the North or Pole Star is an  absolutely reliable guide and every person who spends any time in the woods 
should be able to recognize and locate the Pole Star. This is easily done by finding the constellation known as the 
Great Bear or Great Dipper in the northern sky. Then, by running an imaginary line from the two outer stars of the 
Dipper, — the upper most of which forms the "lip" of the dipper or the "breast" of the Bear — and from the bottom of
the dipper or foot of the bear upward, the first bright star on this line will be the North Star. As the dipper rotates 
around the Pole Star the constellation will sometimes be above and sometimes below or at one side of the north 
star; but if the imaginary line is run up from the bottom across the breast of the bear or lip of the dipper the North 
Star may always be located as shown in Fig. 30, provided of course the night is clear.

I have already mentioned the importance of being able to gauge distance accurately. To measure long distances 
the easiest method is to pace over them and with a little practice and by measuring the length of your strides you 
can learn to pace a distance of several hundred yards quite accurately. An ordinary man's pace is about three feet 
or a yard on smooth level ground, but in hilly or broken country, on soft ground, or in the woods, the length of a 
pace must of necessity vary and only by repeatedly pacing or walking over various kinds of ground and averaging 
the length of your strides can you expect to obtain a fair idea of distances travelled in this manner.

There is a little instrument known as the pedometer which will give you a very good idea of distances walked and 
every camper should carry one. But as this instrument is simply a device for recording and adding up your steps it 
must be adjusted to suit your stride or you must correct and check up results by experiment and as it records every 
step, whether short or long, you must test the pedometer by travelling known distances over various kinds of 
country and then adding or subtracting a definite percentage from the readings of the instrument when you use it.

For short distances, and to determine the length or height of various objects, there are much more simple and 
accurate means of measurement and every camper and woodsman should know how to measure the width of 
streams or gorges, the height of trees and the levels of hills or other heights without the aid of surveying 
instruments or complex mathematics.

To determine the height of an object is perhaps more simple than to measure a distance and may be accomplished 
as follows:

Suppose, for example, you wish to measure the height of a large tree. First place a stick or pole upright in the 
ground so that a definite height, say 6 feet, is above the surface of the earth, Fig, 31 A-B.

Then place your face close to the surface of the ground and sight across the top of the pole to the top of the tree 
and move further away or nearer, until the top of the pole comes exactly in line with the top of the tree as shown at 
C-E and measure the distance from your eye to the base of the pole, C-B, and from base of tree to your eye C-D. If 
you find the distance from pole to eye to be ten feet and from base of tree to eye 100 feet then, by the simple sum 
in ratio of 10 : 6 :: 100 : X, you obtain the result 60 feet as the correct height of the tree.

To determine the distance of an object from the observer, or the width of a stream, pond, ravine or other space, is 
equally simple.

First, select some prominent landmark such as a tree, rock or building, or erect a pole on the further side of the 
stream, and use this as a sight (Fig. 32 X). Next make a small equilateral triangle by placing three straight sticks of 
equal length upon the ground and in such a position that by sighting along one of the sides the corners A, B will 
come in line with X. Mark the three angles, A, B, C, with small stones or short sticks pushed into the earth and walk 
along in line with the marks A, C, until the triangle, when placed upon the ground, will have the angles E, F in line 
with X and the side D, F will come in line with the marks A, C. Then, by measuring the distance from A to F, you can 
learn the distance from G to X, for this is always 7/8 of the distance from A to F. Thus, if from A to F is 96 feet, you 
may be sure that from G to X is 84 feet.

Finally there is the matter of leveling, or in other words, determining the depth of a depression or the height of a hill.
This is easily accomplished if you have a pail or bucket, a knife and a tape or rule for measuring. Suppose there is 
a shallow hollow whose depth you wish to learn. Cut a thin flat piece of wood a little shorter than the diameter of the 
bucket and in each end insert a little mast or post, the two being of exactly the same height (Fig, 33 A). Now fill the 
bucket with water and secure a straight sapling or pole.

Mark off spaces of a foot apart on the pole for ten feet or so and make each mark easily visible by cutting away 
some of the bark or attaching short cross pieces. Place the marked pole upright in the ground at the bottom of the 
depression, and place the pail upon the edge of the depression with the board and its two little masts towards the 
pole and, if the hollow is not deeper than the height of your pole, you will be able to note the foot mark which comes 
in line with the tops of the masts. By deducting the distance from the bottom of the pail to the tops of the masts from 
the mark upon the pole you will know the depth of the hollow. If, on the other hand, the hole is deeper than the 
height of your pole, you will have to use a longer rod or else move the rod towards the pail until your sights come in
line with the marks upon the rod. Then measure the distance from the pail to the rod, set the pail where the pole 
was before, move the pole further into the hollow and again sight across the masts. By doing this several times and 
measuring the distances from pail to rod each time and adding the total heights obtained, you will not only be able 
to determine the depth of the depression but will be able also to make a sectional diagram of the hollow. Moreover, 
 by this method, you can learn where the lowest part of the depression is situated, for as soon as the sights show
the depth is becoming less you can be sure that the greatest depression is passed. This is more readily understood
by referring to Fig. 33 B, which shows a sectional sketch of a hollow made by the methods described. This is also an
excellent way for finding whether apparently level land rises or falls and also the height of land above water, as well 
as the height of a hill, for by placing the pail on the hilltop and treating the slopes like the sides of the depression 
an accurate outline of the hill and its height can be obtained.

By combining the use of the compass, the pedometer or paces, the use of triangulation for determining heights and 
distances and the simple bucket level a very accurate map of any locality may be made and you will find that in 
many cases such a sketch map, although made without the aid of instruments, is very useful and valuable.

End of Excerpt.
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