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TECHNICAL NOTE NO. TN/02-2
SUSTAINING HEALTH & PERFORMANCE IN COLD WEATHER OPERATIONS
Prepared by John W. Castellani, Catherine O’Brien, Carol Baker-Fulco, Michael N. Sawka, and Andrew J. Young

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS DURING COLD-WEATHER OPERATIONS 

SUSTAINING HEALTH DURING COLD WEATHER
	Cold 
	Cold Injuries 
	Cold Weather Clothing: 
	Shelter 
	Sun, Low Humidity & High Altitude
	Food and Water During Cold-Weather Operations 
	Wounds, Disease and Nonbattle Injuries

SUSTAINING PERFORMANCE DURING COLD WEATHER
	Soldier Tasks
	NBC Operations
	Leadership

PREPARATION FOR COLD-WEATHER OPERATIONS

KEY POINTS DURING COLD-WEATHER OPERATIONS

APPENDICES
	APPENDIX A. Wind Chill Temperature
	APPENDIX B. Cold-Weather Training Guidelines
	APPENDIX C. Graphs of Metabolic Rate & Clothing 
	APPENDIX D. Individual Cold-Weather Survival Kit
	APPENDIX E. Freezing Points of Selected Chemical Agents
	APPENDIX F. Further Reading
DISCLAIMER

ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS DURING COLD-WEATHER OPERATIONS
History is filled with examples of the significant impact of cold on military operations. Among U.S. Army and Army Air 
Force troops, there were over 90,000 cold injuries requiring medical treatment during World War II, and another 
10,000 during the Korean War, accounting for 10% of all casualties experienced during these conflicts. Given that
the average air temperature recorded when cold injuries were experienced during World War II was 30oF, and that 
temperatures this low are experienced over about 60% of the earth's surface, leaders must appreciate cold-weather
effects on soldier health and performance. Cold injuries can also occur when air temperatures are above freezing. 
For example, during the Falkland Islands War, trench-foot was common among British and Argentinean Forces.

Prevention of cold injuries is the responsibility of commanders at all levels.

Cold weather can directly affect an individual's health and performance by lowering body temperature, resulting in 
cold injuries and impaired performance. Moreover, cold temperatures are often accompanied by wind, rain, snow, 
and ice, which can worsen the effects of cold, as well as contribute to injury and performance impairments in and of 
themselves. Cold weather conditions impair many aspects of normal military functioning in the field, which can in 
turn influence soldier health and performance. 

Food and water problems are common during cold weather, since requirements are high and supply is difficult. 
Cold weather contributes to increased disease and non-battle injury, since maintaining proper field sanitation and 
personal hygiene is difficult, sick and injured individuals are susceptible to cold injuries, and the use of indoor 
stoves may lead to burns or carbon monoxide poisoning. 

Operational problems often arise in cold weather. Bulky clothing restricts movement, equipment often malfunctions, 
travel can be difficult, cold-weather clothing and NBC protective clothing and equipment are difficult to integrate, 
and fogging and freezing of eyepieces and windows occurs.

	COLD-WEATHER STRESSORS
		DIRECT EFFECTS:
			1. COLD TEMPERATURES
			2. WIND
			3. RAIN, SNOW, ICE, HUMIDITY
		INDIRECT EFFECTS:
			4. FOOD AND WATER PROBLEMS
			5. DISEASE AND NONBATTLE INJURY
			6. OPERATIONAL PROBLEMS

While cold makes military tasks more difficult, they are not impossible and proper training can prevent many of the 
problems with soldier health and performance. Viewing cold as a challenge to be overcome is the key to the 
positive attitude required to successfully complete the mission. The purpose of this Technical Note is to highlight 
the effects of cold on the soldier and equipment, and to present ways to minimize these effects.

Cold
Heat flows from areas of high temperature to those of lower temperature. When a person is surrounded by air or 
water having a lower temperature than body temperature, the body will lose heat. If heat escapes faster than the 
body produces heat, body temperature will fall. Immersion in water can increase heat loss by 25-fold compared to
cold air, therefore wet soldiers are more susceptible to hypothermia than dry soldiers. Normal internal body 
temperature is 98.6°F (37°C), and if internal body temperature falls to 95.5°F (35.5°C), performance decrements 
and cold injuries can result.

How Cold Affects the Body:
	1. Humans protect themselves from cold primarily by avoiding or reducing cold exposure using 
	clothing and shelter. When this protection proves inadequate, the body has biological defense 
	mechanisms to help maintain correct body temperature, including vasoconstriction (heat 
	conservation) and shivering (heat production).

		a. Vasoconstriction is the narrowing of blood vessels in the skin when it is
		exposed to cold causing the skin temperature to fall. The reduced skin blood
		flow conserves body heat, but can lead to discomfort, numbness, loss of 
		dexterity in hands and fingers, and eventually cold injuries.

		b. Shivering can increase internal heat production by as much as 3-5 times.
		which helps to offset the heat being lost. Physical activity also increases heat 
		production (by as much as 15 times) and may be sufficient to completely 
		compensate for heat loss, even when it is extremely cold. However, strenuous 
		activity is fatiguing and also causes sweating, which reduces clothing insulation.

	2. Humans do not acclimatize to cold weather nearly as well as they can acclimatize to hot weather. 
	Proper physical conditioning and training before deploying into cold weather regions is more 
	important for prevention of cold injuries than repeatedly being exposed to cold temperatures.

		a. Training outdoors in cold weather before deployment will help build
		confidence in soldiers' ability to physically, mentally and emotionally contend with 
		the stress of cold-weather conditions.

		b. Physical training improves body heat conservation and enables greater
		sustainment of exercise heat production before becoming fatigued.

Cold Injuries
	1. Nonfreezing cold injuries can occur when conditions are cold and wet (air temperatures between 
	32° and 55°F, or 0° to 13°C) and the hands and feet cannot be kept warm and dry. The most 
	prominent nonfreezing cold injuries are chilblain and trench foot.

		a. Chilblain, while painful, causes little or no permanent impairment. It appears
		as red, swollen skin that is tender, hot to the touch and may itch. This can 
		worsen to an aching, prickly ("pins and needles") sensation and then numbness. 
		It can develop in only a few hours in skin exposed to cold/wet conditions.

		b. Trench foot is a very serious injury that may result in permanent nerve or
		tissue damage. Constant dampness softens skin, causes blistering or bleeding 
		and may lead to infection. Untreated, trench foot may require amputation. Early 
		signs of trench foot include itching, numbness or tingling pain. Later the feet may 
		appear swollen, and the skin mildly red, blue or black. Commonly, trench foot 
		shows a distinct "water-line" coinciding with the water level in the boot. The risk of 
		this potentially crippling injury is high when troops are exposed to wet conditions 
		for prolonged periods (>12 hours). Soldiers wearing rubberized or tight-fitting boots 
		are at risk for trench foot regardless of weather conditions, since sweat accumulates 
		inside these boots and keeps the feet wet.

	FIRST AID FOR CHILBLAIN AND TRENCHFOOT
		1. PREVENT FURTHER EXPOSURE

		2. REMOVE WET OR CONSTRICTIVE CLOTHING

		3. WASH AND DRY GENTLY

		4. ELEVATE, COVER WITH LAYERS OF LOOSE, WARM, DRY
		CLOTHING AND ALLOW TO REWARM (PAIN AND
		BLISTERS MAY DEVELOP)

		5. DO NOT: POP BLISTERS, APPLY LOTIONS OR CREAMS,
		MASSAGE, EXPOSE TO EXTREME HEAT OR ALLOW
		VICTIM TO WALK ON INJURY

		6. REFER FOR MEDICAL TREATMENT

	2. Freezing cold injuries can occur whenever air temperatures are below freezing (32°F or 0°C), 
	and in exposed skin, risk increases with higher wind speeds.

		a. Freezing limited to the skin surface is frostnip. Frostnip involves freezing of
		water on the skin surface. The skin will become reddened and possibly swollen. 
		Although painful, there is usually no further damage after rewarming. Repeated 
		frostnip in the same spot can dry the skin, causing it to crack and become very 
		sensitive. It is difficult to tell the difference between frostnip and frostbite. 
		Frostnip should be taken seriously since it may be the first sign of impending 
		frostbite.	Frostnip injuries should be reported immediately.

		b. When freezing extends deeper through the skin and flesh, the injury is frostbite.
		Skin freezes at about 25-28o F (-4 to -2°C). As frostbite develops, skin will become 
		numb and turn to a gray or waxy-white color. The area will be cold to the touch and
		may feel stiff or woody. With frostbite, ice crystal formation and lack of blood flow to 
		the frozen area damages the tissues. After thawing, swelling may occur, worsening 
		the injury.

		c. The use of emollients (e.g., petroleum jelly) does not protect against frostbite. 
		Instead it may give a false sense of security and therefore increase the risk for
		frostbite.

	FIRST AID FOR FROSTBITE
		1. PREVENT FURTHER EXPOSURE

		2. REMOVE WET, CONSTRICTIVE CLOTHING

		3. REWARM GRADUALLY BY DIRECT SKIN-TO-SKIN CONTACT BETWEEN
		INJURED AREA AND NONINJURED SKIN OF THE VICTIM OR A BUDDY

		4. EVACUATE FOR MEDICAL TREATMENT (FOOT INJURIES BY LITTER)

		5. DO NOT ALLOW INJURY TO REFREEZE DURING EVACUATION

		NOTE: 
		1) DO NOT REWARM A FROSTBITE INJURY IF IT COULD REFREEZE DURING EVACUATION; 
		2) DO NOT REWARM FROSTBITTEN FEET IF VICTIM MUST WALK FOR MEDICAL TREATMENT; 
		3) DO NOT REWARM INJURY OVER OPEN FLAME

	3. Body temperature falls when the body cannot produce heat as fast as it is being lost. Hypothermia 
	is a life threatening condition in which deep-body temperature falls below 95°F (35°C).

		a. Generally, deep-body temperature will not fall until after many hours of
		continuous exposure to cold air, if the individual is healthy, physically active 
		and appropriately dressed. However, since wet skin and wind accelerate 
		body heat loss, and the body produces less heat during inactive periods, 
		body temperature can fall even when air temperatures are above freezing if
		conditions are windy, clothing is wet, and/or the individual is inactive.

		b. Hypothermia can occur rapidly during cold-water immersion (one hour or 
		less when water temperature is below 45°F or 7°C). Because water has a 
		tremendous capacity to conduct heat away from the body, immersion in water 
		considered even slightly cool, say 60°F or 15°C, can cause hypothermia, if 
		the immersion is prolonged for several hours.

		c. Exhaustion, physical exercise, repeated cold exposure, inactivity, and poor 
		nutrition can increase susceptibility to hypothermia.

		d. Hypothermia is a medical emergency. Untreated, it results in death. Hypothermia 
		may be difficult to recognize in its early stages of development. Vigorous shivering 
		is a sign that increased heat production is necessary to main body temperature.
		Other signs of hypothermia include unusually withdrawn or bizarre behavior, 
		irritability, confusion, slowed or slurred speech, altered vision, uncoordinated 
		movements, and unconsciousness. Even mild hypothermia can cause victims to make 
		poor decisions or act drunk (e.g., removing clothing when it is clearly inappropriate).

		e. Hypothermia victims may show no heartbeat, breathing, or response to touch 
		or pain when in fact they are not really dead. Sometimes, the heartbeat and 
		breathing of hypothermia victims will be so faint that it can go undetected. If 
		hypothermia has resulted from submersion in cold water, cardiopulmonary resuscitation 
		(CPR) should be initiated without delay. However, when hypothermia victims are found 
		on land, it is important to take a little extra time searching for vital signs to determine 
		whether CPR is really required. Hypothermia victims should be treated as gently as 
		possible during treatment and evacuation, since the function of the heart can be 
		seriously impaired in hypothermia victims. Rough handling can cause life-threatening 
		disruptions in heart rate. All hypothermia victims, even those who do not appear to be 
		alive, must be evaluated by trained medical personnel.

		f. Susceptibility to cold injury (non-freezing, freezing, or hypothermia) is affected by
		many related factors, including the environment, mission, and individual.

	FIRST AID FOR HYPOTHERMIA
		1. PREVENT FURTHER COLD EXPOSURE

		2. REMOVE WET CLOTHING

		3. INITIATE CPR, ONLY IF REQUIRED
		
		4. REWARM BY COVERING WITH BLANKETS, SLEEPING BAGS
		AND WITH BODY-TO-BODY CONTACT

		5. HANDLE GENTLY DURING TREATMENT AND EVACUATION



COLD INJURY RISK FACTORS:
	ENVIRONMENT RELATED:
		COLD TEMPERATURES
		WIND
		RAIN, IMMERSION
		ALTITUDE (low oxygen)
	MISSION RELATED:
		SUSTAINED OPERATIONS
		INADEQUATE SHELTER
		INACTIVITY (e.g. SENTRY)
		ERGONOMIC (e.g. LOAD CARRY)
		WETLAND OPERATIONS
		LACK OF FOOD & WATER
		CAMOUFLAGE PAINT ON SKIN
		METAL, FUEL
		PREVIOUS COLD EXPOSURE
		EXERCISE BEFORE COLD
	INDIVIDUAL:
		FATIGUE
		DEHYDRATION
		LOW BODY FAT
		AGE
		ALCOHOL
		NICOTINE
		POOR NUTRITION
		ILLNESS, INJURY, WOUNDS
		MEDICATIONS
		PRIOR COLD INJURY
		POOR CLOTHING & EQUIPMENT
		SLEEP LOSS

A. Environment Related.
	1. Wind increases heat loss from exposed skin exposed to cold air and can increase the risk of
	frostbite. The wind-chill temperature chart (Appendix A) integrates wind speed and air temperature 
	to provide an estimate of the cooling power of the environment and the associated risk of cold 
	injury. The wind-chill temperature is the equivalent still-air (i.e., no wind) temperature at which the
	heat loss through bare skin would be the same as under the windy conditions. Wind-chill 
	temperatures obtained from weather reports do not take into account man-made wind. Individuals 
	riding in open vehicles or exposed to propeller/rotor-generated wind can be subject to dangerous
	windchill, even when natural winds are low. Rather than cancel outdoor training at some arbitrary 
	temperature limit, training should be modified and safety surveillance should be increased as the 
	weather becomes more severe, and the danger of tissue freezing increases, as indicated in
	Appendix B.

	2. Water can conduct heat away from the body much faster than air of the same temperature. 
	When clothing becomes wet due to snow, rain, splashing water, immersion, or accumulated sweat, 
	the body's loss of heat accelerates. For example, when air temperature is 40°F (4°C), heat loss in 
	wet clothing is double what it is in dry clothing. Swimmers and persons working or wading in water 
	can lose a great deal of body heat even when water temperatures are only mildly cool. Individuals 
	working in cold water should be closely watched while they enter the water, since sudden plunging 
	into cold water can produce irregular heart beats, gasping, and hyperventilation which could cause 
	inhalation of water, heart failure

	3. When assessing weather conditions for troops operating in mountainous regions or for flight 
	personnel in aircraft, altitude must be considered, if weather measurements are obtained from 
	stations at low elevations. Temperatures, windchill and the risk of cold injury at high altitudes can 
	differ considerably from those at low elevations.

	In general, it can be assumed that air temperature is 3.6°F (2°C) lower with every 1000 feet
	above the site at which temperature was measured. Winds are usually more severe at high 
	altitude and there is less cover above the tree line. Individuals are more susceptible to frostbite at 
	altitudes above 8,000 feet (2,400 meters) than at sea level, due to the lower temperatures, higher 
	winds and lack of oxygen. Body heat is not conserved as well over altitudes above 6,000 feet 
	(1800 meters), increasing the risk for hypothermia.

B. Mission Related
	1. In defensive fighting positions like foxholes or small vehicle crew compartments, movement is 
	very restricted and soldiers must often remain inactive inside them for long periods of time, which 
	can greatly increase risk of cold injury. If these areas are wet, trench foot can become a serious 
	problem.

	2. When the face and other exposed skin areas are covered by camouflage paint, it is difficult to 
	see the changes in skin color which signal the early development of frostbite.

	3. Metal objects and liquid fuels that have been left outdoors in the cold can pose a serious 
	hazard. Both can conduct heat away from the skin very rapidly. Fuels and solvents remain liquid at 
	very low temperatures and become supercooled. Skin contact with fuel or metal at below freezing 
	temperatures can result in nearly instantaneous freezing. Fuel handlers should use great care not 
	to allow exposed skin to come into contact with spilled fuel or the metal nozzles and valves of fuel 
	delivery systems. Thin liner gloves should always be worn when temperatures fall below freezing to 
	reduce the risk of contact frostbite.

C. Individual Related
	a. Poorly conditioned soldiers are more susceptible to cold injury. They tire more quickly and are 
	unable to stay active to keep warm as long as fit soldiers. Physical fatigue decreases 
	vasoconstriction and increases heat loss. Fatigued soldiers also may make more judgment errors 
	when tired and increase their exposure and risk of injury.

	b. Dehydration can increase susceptibility to cold injury by decreasing physical performance and 
	cognitive function of the soldier. Dehydrated soldiers become fatigued more easily and may use 
	poor judgment. Dehydration may also blunt vasoconstriction causing greater heat loss.

	c. Body Fat insulates against heat loss. Therefore, a lean person may be more susceptible to 
	cooling, if clothing is inadequate or wet, or if the individual is relatively inactive such as during 
	sentry duty.

	d. Persons >45 years old may be less cold tolerant than younger persons, due to either a decline 
	in physical fitness (will fatigue sooner due to working at higher % of maximal aerobic capacity) or 
	inability to vasoconstrict and conserve heat as well as their younger counterparts.

	e. Alcohol can lower blood sugar levels and decrease shivering. Also, alcohol increases urine 
	formation, leading to dehydration, which can further degrade the body's ability to perform. Most 
	importantly, alcohol blunts the senses and impairs judgment, so the individual may not feel the 
	signs and symptoms of developing cold injury.

	f. Smoking or chewing tobacco can increase susceptibility to frostbite by increasing 
	vasoconstriction in the periphery (e.g. hands).

	g. Inadequate nutrition, and illness and injury compromise the body's responses to cold due to 
	the inability to shiver as well. They may also decrease the ability to recognize and react 
	appropriately to the symptoms of developing cold injury. Medications may interfere with the ability 
	to shiver or vasoconstrict and thus extra care should be taken in cold weather.

	i. Individuals who have experienced a cold injury in the past are at greater risk of experiencing a 
	cold injury than other soldiers. These soldiers may be more sensitive to the effects of cold, or they 
	may not have learned how to properly protect themselves.

	j. Soldiers who are sleep-deprived will not be able to sustain physical activity and will increase their 
	risk for hypothermia.

Cold Weather Clothing:
WHEN USING COLD-WEATHER CLOTHING, REMEMBER C-O-L-D:
		keep it 		Clean
		avoid 		Overheating
		wear it 		Loose in layers
		keep it 		Dry

	1. Cold-weather clothing systems are designed to accommodate a variety of weather conditions 
	and activity levels. Cold-weather clothing protection is based on the principles of insulation, 
	layering and ventilation. By understanding these principles, soldier can vary their clothing to 
	optimize performance and stay comfortable.

		a. Insulation depends on the amount of air trapped within the garment and
		properties of the material. For a given weight, a thicker material will trap more 
		air and be a better insulator. When clothing is dirty, the material tends to be 
		packed down, which compromises insulation.

		b. Wearing clothing ensembles in multiple layers allows insulation to be 
		adjusted to changes in environment or workload as well as to the individual's 
		own needs and preferences. Layered clothing is especially important for 
		soldiers whose duties require them to frequently move in and out of heated 
		shelters, or to periodically undertake vigorous physical activity.

		c. Physically active people sweat even in extremely cold weather. If sweat 
		cannot evaporate, it will accumulate, wet the clothing, and ultimately compromise 
		insulation. Sweat will be able to evaporate if clothing allows ventilation. Proper 
		clothing will be made of material that water vapor can pass through, and 
		will allow the wearer to unzip and open the clothing periodically to increase 
		ventilation. Sweat evaporation will be compromised when clothing is dirty.

		d. Appendix C shows two graphs. Graph A depicts the metabolic cost (1 MET
		= sitting) of walking on various surfaces at different speeds. Graph B shows the 
		clothing insulation necessary for comfort for different metabolic rates and air 
		temperatures. (Clo values for the BDU (1 clo), ECWCS (3.6 clo), Cold/Wet-Cold/Dry 
		(4 clo), ECWCS+MOPP (4 clo), and sleeping bag (8 clo) are shown for comparison). 
		The graphs indicate that when working hard (6 METS), only 2 clo of insulation is 
		required, even at air temperatures as low as –40°F. For lighter work (2 METS), more 
		clothing will need to added in order to maintain thermal comfort.

	2. The US Army has two different clothing systems in the inventory for issue to troops operating in 
	cold-weather conditions: a Cold/Wet-Cold/Dry Clothing System (FM 31-70), and an Extended 
	Cold-Weather Clothing System (FM 21-15).

		a. Soldiers deployed to cold-weather areas from stations in warm regions can
		be issued the combination Cold/Wet-Cold/Dry Clothing System that can be 
		configured into two ensembles. The cold/wet ensemble is worn above 14°F 
		(-10°C), and the cold/dry ensemble is worn below 14°F. The cold/dry ensemble 
		protects down to -60°F (-51°C).

		The cold/wet configuration differs from the cold/dry in the number of layers and 
		the choice of boots. This system uses layers of wool/cotton fabrics to trap air for 
		insulation, and a water-repellent outer garment to maintain dryness. Wool/cotton 
		fabrics can retain moisture which decreases their insulation. Therefore, it is 
		important that the clothing remain dry. These fabrics also become heavy when wet, 
		making work more difficult

		b. Soldiers regularly stationed in cold-weather regions are usually issued the
		Extended Cold-Weather Clothing System (ECWCS), which protects from +40°F 
		(4°C) to -60°F (-51°C). ECWCS consists of 5 layers: polypropylene underwear, 
		a polyester fiberpile shirt and bib overalls, polyester coat liner and field pants, 
		nylon/GORE-TEX® laminate parka and trousers, and nylon overgarments (parka
		and trousers). The inner layers are made of fabrics that draw perspiration away 
		from the skin. The outer layer is made of a material that repels outside water while 
		allowing perspiration to escape. 

		Either the cold-weather vapor barrier boot (Type I) or the extreme cold-weather 
		vapor barrier boot (Type II) can be worn with one pair of nylon/cotton/wool socks 
		(OG-106). Vapor barrier boots can cause trenchfoot. Socks must be changed 
		frequently. 

		The Combat Vehicle Crewman's Hood (Balaclava) is worn under the PASGT helmet. 

		The polypropylene layer and the nylon/GORE-TEX® Parka and trousers should always 
		be worn to prevent perspiration from building up inside the clothes. The Parka and 
		trousers should not be worn during strenuous exercise because if they become 
		saturated with sweat, the water will freeze and the garment will lose its breathability. 
		Wool or wool blends should not be worn in the intermediate layers of the ECWCS 
		because they retain moisture.

		c. Feet, hands and exposed skin must be kept dry. Feet are particularly vulnerable 
		and extra foot care is required for cold-weather operations. Feet should be washed, 
		dried and dusted with a dry, antifungal powder (NSN 6505-01-008-3054) daily.

		Socks must be changed whenever they become wet from exposure to rain or snow, or
		from sweat. This may require changing into dry socks at least 2-3 times daily. Extra
		socks can be air dried and then carried under BDU's to warm.

	3. Several varieties of handwear protection are available for issue.

		a. Most soldiers receive the standard light-duty leather glove that is worn with a
		50% wool, 50% nylon liner inserted. This handwear ensemble provides inactive 
		persons with about 30 minutes of protection from frostbite when air temperature 
		is 0°F (-18°C). If temperatures are warmer and/or soldiers are physically active, 
		the handwear ensemble will provide effective protection for longer periods. The 
		light-duty leather glove is not waterproof. When active, care should be taken that 
		sweat from hands does not accumulate in the glove and degrade insulation.

		b. When the standard light-duty leather glove provides inadequate protection
		(i.e. air temperature below 0°F (-18°C), or more than 30 minutes of inactive 
		exposure anticipated), trigger finger or Extreme Cold Weather mittens and liners 
		can be worn.

	4. Because the combination of cold-weather clothing and equipment is heavy and cumbersome and 
	working in snow, ice or mud is very strenuous. Snowshoes or skis should be used for dismounted 
	troop movement when loose snow is deeper than 15 inches (38 cm). Although easier than walking 
	through deep snow, snowshoeing, and skiing are hard work and troops require proper equipment and 
	training to use these techniques.

	Building fighting positions and moving troops requires more time and physical effort.

	Digging may be very difficult or impossible in frozen ground. Building defenses in hard frozen ground 
	may require engineer support in the form of heavy equipment for digging and plowing.

		a. The increased effort can result in overheating and sweating especially during
		hard work, and can contribute to increased fatigue.

		b. Sweat buildup and overheating should be minimized by ventilating clothing
		and removing layers (especially outer shell) during heavy work and scheduling 
		frequent short rest breaks.

Shelter
	1. The US Army has several heaters for use inside tents during cold weather.

		a. The type of heater required depends on the size of the tent or shelter to be
		heated. The Space Heater Arctic (NSN 4520-01-444-2375) is used to heat the 
		Arctic 10 Man Squad Tent, 5 man tents and GP small tents. Other stoves carried 
		by the soldier can be used to melt ice and snow or to heat water. They can also 
		be used to provide minimal heat in small shelters.

		b. Care must be used to prevent melting the frozen ground beneath or around
		the heater because it may melt unevenly and cause the heater to tip over, or it 
		will increase the chance that a soldiers’ clothing will become wet. By using a tent 
		liner, removing loose snow and ice from the ground before setting up the tent, and 
		preventing the tent from overheating, melting can be minimized. If available, 
		plywood tent flooring and metal trays under the stove can be used to reduce melting.

	2. Shelter from weather is critical for protection from wind and precipitation and to create a warmer 
	environment. The standard shelter is the tent, but improvised shelters (snow caves, snow trenches, 
	lean-tos etc.) can be constructed from local materials.

	3. The recommended sleeping system is the Modular Sleeping Bag System (NSN 8465-01-393-1154) 
	on top of a closed-cell foam Sleeping Mat (NSN 8465-01-109-3369).

		a. Layers of tree boughs (if a mat is unavailable) under the sleeping bag help
		reduce heat loss to the ground. The sleeping bag should be shaken out before 
		using to add air to the lining, which improves its insulation.

		b. In tents, soldiers should sleep in long underwear and socks with all other
		clothing hung up to dry. In improvised shelters, only boots and the outermost 
		clothing layer should be removed. Place clothing under the sleeping bag where it 
		can add insulation without accumulation moisture from the body. Ice should be 
		removed from vapor barrier boots, and they should be wiped dry on the inside and, 
		if possible, allowed to air out before putting them on again. In extreme cold, a 
		balaclava or some other head cover should be worn while sleeping to protect the 
		ears, neck, and face. The arctic mittens can be worn on the feet while inside the 
		sleeping bag to help keep the feet warm. The head should not be put inside the 
		sleeping bag, since moisture from the breath will accumulate in the bag, reducing its
		insulation.

		c. Air out the sleeping bag as often as possible to evaporate moisture.

		d. Minimize the risk of cold injuries in fighting positions, sentry points and observation 
		points by placing pads, sleeping bags, tree boughs, etc inside these positions to allow 
		occupants to insulate themselves from the ground or snow.

Sun, Low Humidity & High Altitude
Besides cold temperatures, wind, and rain, other environmental stressors will be encountered during cold-weather 
operations. For example, winter operations in the coastal regions of the eastern United States or the Arabian Gulf of 
Southwest Asia may be conducted during periods of near-freezing temperatures, rain and wind. Heavy snow may be
encountered during winter operations in areas of northern Europe, North America, Afghanistan, Iraq, and 
throughout the year in mountainous regions. In desert, arctic and high altitude regions, very low temperatures are 
often accompanied by high winds, low humidity, very bright sun, or a combination of those conditions. The influence 
of wind and rain on the severity of cold stress has been discussed in the last section. However, sun, wind, snow, rain
and low humidity each present environmental health threats in and of themselves.

	FIRST AID FOR OVEREXPOSURE TO SUN AND WIND:
		1. PREVENT FURTHER EXPOSURE

		2. TREAT MILD SUNBURN, WINDBURN AND CHAPPING WITH MOISTURIZING LOTIONS,
		AND ASPIRIN OR TYLENOL, BUT EVACUATE FOR MEDICAL TREATMENT IF LARGE
		AREAS OF SKIN ARE INJURED OR BLISTERED

		3. FOR SNOW BLINDNESS, HAVE VICTIM REST IN DARK AREA WITH EYES COVERED 
		WITH COOL, WET BANDAGES UNTIL EVACUATED. APPLY BACITRACIN OR 
		ERYTHROMYCIN OPHTHALMIC OINTMENT.

Understanding the Problems:
	
	1. Exposure of unprotected skin and eyes to sunlight may cause sunburn and snow blindness. The
	threat of sunburn and snow blindness depends on the intensity of sunlight, not the air temperature. 
	Snow, ice and lightly colored objects reflect the sun's rays, increasing the potential for injury. 
	Sunburn and snow blindness can last hours to days and can cause temporary incapacitation.

		a. Sunburned skin will appear red, hot to the touch, possibly swollen and blistered, 
		and will be painful. Sunburn will increase heat loss during cold exposure.

		b. Solar radiation can "sunburn" unprotected eyes resulting in snow blindness.
		Sunburned eyes are painful, may feel gritty, and profuse tearing, blurred vision, 
		and headache may occur.

		c. Using sunscreen that contains para amino benzoic acid (PABA) or other
		chemicals capable of blocking ultraviolet radiation (at least 15 Sun Protection 
		Factor) and covering exposed skin will prevent most sunburn. In cold weather, use 
		alcohol-free sunscreen lotion (Sunscreen Prep, NSN 6505-01-121-2336).

		d. The use of protective eyewear (Sunglasses, Polarized, NSN 8465-00-161-
		9415) or goggles that block at least 90% of ultraviolet radiation helps to prevent 
		snow blindness. Sunglasses with visible light transmittance in the 5 to 10% range 
		are needed to reduce the sun reflecting off the snow. Sideshields or deeply 
		wrapped lens designs should be used. Not all commercially available sunglasses 
		block enough solar radiation to protect against snow blindness.

	2. Cold climates may also have low humidity.

		a. Low humidity and windy conditions cause drying of the lining (mucous membranes) 
		of the nose, mouth, and throat causing nosebleeds, sore throat, and minor 
		respiratory difficulties as well as chapping of the skin, increasing the sensitivity to 
		sunburn, and chaffing. Wind blown debris entering the eyes can lead to eye irritation, 
		injury, and infection.

		b. Chapped lips and skin can be prevented through the use of lip balm (Cold Climate 
		Lipstick, Antichap, NSN 6508-01-277-2903) and limiting exposure of skin to the
		environment. Skin moisturizing lotion may help the skin retain water.

		c. Covering the nose and mouth using a balaclava or scarf will limit the drying of
		mucous membranes.

	3. High altitude exposure is combined with cold air temperatures.
		
		a. When exposed to high altitude, shivering and vasoconstriction are lower,
		increasing the risk for hypothermia. The combination of cold and altitude also 
		decreases blood flow to the extremities increasing the risk for frostbite.

		b. High altitude regions can be dry increasing respiratory water loss and
		causing dehydration. Proper water intake must be maintained.

		c. High altitudes decrease physical performance, lowering heat production by
		exercise.

Food and Water During Cold-Weather Operations
Although warm clothing and proper shelter are the first line of defense in protecting against the effects of cold 
weather, adequate food and water consumption are next in importance. Food and water requirements of soldiers
are high during cold-weather operations and the effects of dehydration and inadequate diet are as serious as in hot
climates.

Understanding the Problems:
Soldiers often become dehydrated during cold-weather operations due to sweating, decreased thirst, cold-induced 
diuresis, respiratory losses in dry air, conscious under drinking, and poor water availability. Dehydration increases 
susceptibility to cold injuries by decreasing physical work ability, decreasing vasoconstriction, and degrading 
cognitive function. Dehydration also reduces appetite, alertness, and can lead to other medical problems such as 
constipation, kidney disorders, and urinary infections.

	1. The body's requirement for water is high during cold-weather operations.

		a. Even in cold weather, sweating can contribute to body water losses.
		Wearing too much clothing can cause overheating, especially during 
		heavy work, which in turn leads to sweating. In cold dry conditions, sweat 
		may evaporate readily without the individual sensing it, if well ventilated. 
		Sweat losses in the cold can be as high as in the heat if heavy activities 
		are combined with cold-weather clothing systems.

		b. Unless water intake exceeds body water losses, dehydration will result.

	2. Soldiers reduce their fluid intake during all field operations, but especially during cold weather.

		a. Because field rations contain less water than garrison food, soldiers take 
		in less water with the food they eat, and they usually do not drink enough to 
		compensate.

		b. Most people do not feel thirsty until they are already significantly dehydrated,
		and thirst may even less noticeable in cold as in hot weather.

		c. When weather is particularly cold and/or rainy, many soldiers purposely allow
		themselves to become dehydrated to avoid having to leave comfortable shelter to 
		urinate outdoors.

		d. When temperatures are extremely low, water in canteens and bulk supply
		containers may freeze, restricting water availability. Transport of water to soldiers 
		may also be problematic.

	3. Soldiers rehydrate best at mealtime. Remind soldiers to drink at this time.

	WATER REQUIREMENTS FOR RECONSTITUTING DIFFERENT RATIONS:
		1. MEAL-READY-TO-EAT - ABOUT HALF A QUART FOR ALL
		DEHYDRATED COMPONENTS

		2. MEAL, COLD WEATHER -
			A. ABOUT HALF A QUART FOR THE MAIN ENTREES ALONE
			B. ABOUT THREE QUARTS FOR ALL RATION COMPONENTS

		3. LONG-RANGE PATROL - ABOUT ONE QUART FOR ALL COMPONENTS

	4. Caloric requirements of soldiers are 10 to 40% higher during cold-weather operations than in warm 
	or hot weather. Approximately 4500 kcals (some more, some less depending on weight and activities) 
	are needed.

		a. Soldiers expend more energy during cold weather, due to a combination of
		clothing and equipment and the increased effort required for working or walking 
		in snow or mud or for preparing positions in frozen ground.

		b. The body uses more calories keeping warm when the weather is cold, which
		also contributes to the increased energy requirement.

	5. Ensuring that soldiers in the field receive adequate amounts of hot rations is a major challenge for 
	leaders during cold-weather operations, especially when soldiers are not stationed close to field 
	feeding facilities or kitchens where rations can be heated and kept warm. Hot rations are important for 
	morale, rewarming cold soldiers, and for promoting rehydration.

	6. Other field-feeding problems often arise from freezing of rations and a lack of readily available liquid 
	water to rehydrate dry ration components.

		a. The most common individual ration soldiers receive during cold-weather operations
		is the Meal-Ready-To-Eat (MRE). Three to four standard MREs per day (1300 kcals 
		per MRE) must be eaten to supply a soldier the necessary calories (4500 kcals total) 
		during cold weather, if no other rations are provided. The MREs include liquid-
		containing components that can freeze during cold-weather operations if these items
		are not kept warm by carrying them inside the clothing.

		b. Two other individual rations that U.S. soldiers may receive during cold-weather 
		operations are the Meal, Cold Weather (MCW) and the Long Range Patrol (LRP). 
		Soldiers must eat 3 MCW meals per day (4500 kcals total ) or three LRPs per day 
		(1572 kcals each) to obtain the necessary calories during cold-weather operations. 
		Three canteens of water are needed to hydrate all parts of a MCW for a day.

		c. Even when troops in the field are served hot rations, meal items that are not
		normally heated (e.g. milk, juice, fruit cocktails, etc) can freeze making it difficult to 
		serve and consume these items.

Coping with Water and Food Problems
	1. Soldiers must drink even when they are not thirsty. Leaders should establish a program of regularly 
	scheduled enforced drinking.

		a. Inactive persons in comfortable climates need a minimum of 2 quarts of
		water a day to prevent dehydration. Using this as a basis, a general 
		recommendation for soldiers participating in cold-weather operations is to 
		consume about a half a quart (half a canteen) of water upon awakening, and 
		half a quart with breakfast, lunch, and dinner. Water should be consumed 
		during the workday (more if the work is strenuous enough to cause the 
		individual to sweat). A total of at least 3-6 quarts per day should be consumed.

		Actual fluid requirements are dependent upon the level of physical work, air
		temperature, and clothing levels.

	2. Hydration status can be monitored by noting the color and volume of a soldier’s urine.

		a. Soldiers should be taught that the more frequent the urination, the better
		hydrated they are; and that dark yellow urine and small volume is a sure 
		indicator that fluid consumption should be increased.

		b. Squad leaders should attempt to monitor urine color and volume of squad
		members. This is easiest if the ground is snow covered or frozen and a specific 
		site is designated for squad members to urinate. The appearance of a dark 
		yellow stain will be noticeable. Even if the particular individual cannot be 
		identified, the squad leader can intensify efforts to encourage all squad 
		members to increase fluid consumption.

	3. In extremely cold weather (below 15°F), standard issue canteens and the 5-gallon metal water 
	containers can freeze.

		a. It may be possible to wear the canteen or a spare water bottle inside one's
		clothing, perhaps tied by a string around the neck. Spare canteens should be 
		kept inside heated vehicles or tents.

		b. At least one full 5 gallon water container per squad should be kept thawed at
		all times. When that container begins to be dispensed, another full container 
		should be brought inside for thawing. It can take several hours to thaw these 
		containers in heated vehicles or tents.

		c. Hands-free canteens (e.g., Camelbacks™) must be used with caution. They
		are susceptible to freezing if carried outside the body. The tubing and mouthpiece 
		are especially vulnerable and these should be insulated. If carried inside clothing, 
		the soldier must be aware that if the bladder breaks, the water will wet clothing and 
		reduce the clothing’s insulation, increasing the risk for cold injury.

	4. Unmelted snow and ice should not be consumed for water. Eating snow and ice irritates the mouth, 
	wastes body heat, and if enough is consumed, body temperature can be lowered. When snow or ice 
	is the only available source of water, it should be thawed before being consumed. Melted snow and 
	ice should not be considered as potable water until appropriately purified.

	5. There may be no better investment for the health, strength and morale of troops participating in 
	cold-weather operations than to provide ample amounts of hot palatable food supplemented with 
	warm beverages. Proper prior planning is critical to successfully ensure that food is still hot when 
	received by the individual soldier.

		a. When soldiers are cold, they will naturally consume more food and beverages 
		if served hot. Therefore, providing hot food and beverages offsets the usual
		reduced consumption in the field, helps to warm the soldier and improves morale.

		b. The 10-40% extra calories most individuals need per day during cold weather 
		can be obtained by eating a "normal" breakfast, lunch, and dinner, and then
		supplementing with frequent snacks throughout the day.

		c. It is a good idea to save food items issued with regular meals to be eaten as
		between-meal snacks. Keep items such as MRE pouch bread, granola bars, 
		candies, cookies, crackers, cheese and peanut butter spreads in your pocket, 
		handy for frequent snacking.

		d. A good tip for soldiers participating in cold-weather operations is to eat a
		snack before bed at night. This will help keep the individual warmer during sleep, 
		which prevents shivering and allows sounder, more restful sleep. Soldiers should 
		insure adequate insulation when sleeping since their core temperature decreases 
		naturally during sleep.

		e. There are many "old soldiers" tales concerning the best foods to eat during
		cold weather, but most soldiers simply need to eat larger amounts of a balanced 
		diet than they do in garrison. Soldiers who must hike, ski or snowshoe for very long 
		distances will benefit by eating more starchy foods such as crackers, potatoes, 
		cereals, bread and noodles.

		f. If soldiers pack personal supplemental food (pogey bait), the best choices
		are high carbohydrate, easy to eat, and easy to digest foods. During sustained 
		operations, energy bars (Hooah! bars) are a good snack. Keep food inside clothes 
		to prevent freezing.

		g. Some DOs and DON’Ts for Cold Weather Nutrition are:

			DO
			·  Eat 10-40% more calories than usually eaten in garrison.
			·  Heat food and beverages at every opportunity.
			·  Drink more than thirst dicates.
			·  Eat snacks between meals and before going to sleep.
			DON’T
			·  Eat snow or ice for moisture.
			·  Start new dietary habits
			·  Use field-training exercises to lose weight.
			·  Consume alcohol

	6. Whenever possible, latrines should be sheltered to protect users from the wind and rain. Soldiers 
	are less likely to restrict food and fluid intake, if they can use the latrines without being overly exposed 
	to the elements.

Wounds, Disease and Non-battle Injuries
Cold weather seriously degrades medical operations in the field. Combat casualties are more susceptible to cold 
injuries, cold slows wound healing, and cold weather can impede field medical treatment and evacuation. 
Furthermore, the incidence of disease and nonbattle injuries is increased during cold-weather operations.

Understanding the Problems:
	1. Cold weather seriously affects care of battle casualties.
	
		a. Medical equipment, medications and medication containers (e.g. IV
		containers, drug ampules) may freeze. Administration of IV medications or 
		fluids is difficult in subfreezing temperatures due to freezing of solutions in
		lines or containers. Cold weather clothing can make it more difficult to 
		check the casualty for wounds and initiate treatment.

		b. Shock may develop more rapidly and more severely when casualties are 
		exposed to cold weather. Blood loss and shock increase susceptibility to 
		frostbite and hypothermia. Sick or injured persons are often unable to sense 
		the development of frostbite or hypothermia.

	TREATMENT FOR SHOCK:
		1. KEEP WARM BY PLACING IN SLEEPING BAG OR SUBSTITUTE

		2. RAISE LEGS ABOVE HEAD LEVEL, UNLESS PATIENT'S HEAD IS INJURED

		3. LOOSEN CLOTHING WITHOUT COMPROMISING PROTECTION FROM COLD

		4. IF CONSCIOUS, PROVIDE WARM DRINKING FLUIDS

		5. MINIMIZE DISCOMFORT AND PROVIDE REASSURANCE

		c. Evacuation procedures may require modification. Litter bearers fatigue quickly 
		in snow, ice or mud, slowing evacuation and putting the rescuers at risk of 
		overexertion and cold injury. Mobile ground transport may be limited by road 
		conditions. Air evacuation is limited by weather conditions. Open vehicles and 
		aircraft can create tremendous windchill requiring measures to protect patients
		from cold injury during transport.

	2. The widespread use of stoves and heaters in tents, other types of shelters and vehicles during 
	coldweather operations poses a risk of burns and injuries from unventilated exhaust fumes.

		a. Burns result from contacting hot surfaces, fires, or explosions of stoves and 
		fuel sources. Improper fueling and lighting techniques, or inadequate ventilation
		can result in the accumulation of flammable fumes into the tent or shelter. When 
		ignited, these gases may cause potentially fatal fires.

	IMMEDIATE FIRST AID FOR BURNS:
		1. MOVE CASUALTY AWAY FROM FIRE, REMOVE BURNING OR SMOLDERING 
		CLOTHING

		2. CUT AWAY CLOTHING OVER AND AROUND THE BURN UNLESS IT IS STUCK 
		TO THE WOUND

		3. COVER BURN WITH DRY, STERILE DRESSING, TIED AT EDGE, NOT OVER, 
		THE BURN

		4. DO NOT APPLY OINTMENTS, SNOW OR ICE TO THE BURN, AND DO NOT 
		BREAK BLISTERS

		c. "Tent eye" is an inflammation and irritation of the eyes caused by exposure to fuel 
		fumes which can accumulate in poorly ventilated shelters. Rubbing "itchy" eyes can 
		subsequently lead to eye infection.

		d. Carbon monoxide (CO) is a poisonous gas which cannot be seen or smelled, and 
		is contained in exhaust from stoves and vehicles. CO can build up in closed spaces 
		without being noticed. Soldiers seeking shelter from the cold in poorly ventilated 
		shelters or vehicles with the engine idling often become victims of CO poisoning. 
		
		Early signs of CO poisoning are headache, confusion, dizziness or drowsiness. The 
		lips and skin can become bright red. Victims will lose consciousness, and eventually 
		die. Any person found unconscious in a closed tent or vehicle should be suspected 
		of possible CO poisoning.

	FIRST AID FOR TENT EYE AND CARBON MONOXIDE POISONING:
		1. MOVE CASUALTY TO FRESH AIR

		2. ADMINISTER CPR IF NEEDED

		3. REFER TO MEDICAL TREATMENT FACILITY FOR EVALUATION AND CARE

	3. Proper field sanitation is very difficult to maintain during cold-weather operations. However, poor 
	sanitation can lead to outbreaks of disease. Frequent close contact with others in shelters, combined 
	with increased individual susceptibility due to fatigue, also contributes to the spread of disease.

		a. Digging latrines and garbage pits can be difficult or impossible when the
		ground is frozen and covered with snow and ice.

		b. Soldiers are not inclined to walk far to use the latrine or garbage pit when 
		it is cold outside.

		c. Improper food storage or garbage disposal will attract wildlife that can
		destroy clothing and equipment and bring disease.

		d. The limited availability of hot water and the discomforts associated with
		undressing in the cold may discourage soldiers from maintaining proper 
		personal hygiene.

		e. Untreated drinking water obtained by melting snow and ice can contain
		disease.

	4. Accidents due to slipping, sliding, falling and vehicular accidents will be more frequent during 
	cold-weather operations. Paths, walkways and roads are frequently muddy or frozen. Heat escaping 
	from the entrances of tents and buildings can cause cycles of thawing and freezing of the ground 
	surface that make these areas particularly hazardous. Fatigue, the hobbling effect of clothing, and 
	the effect of hoods and hats on vision and hearing will also contribute to accidents and falls.

Avoiding the Problems:
	1. Keep liquid medications and medical equipment from freezing. 

		a. Store medications and medical equipment in heated areas of vehicles and
		shelters whenever possible to prevent freezing.

		b. Some liquid medications can be carried inside the clothing of medical
		personnel where body heat will prevent freezing. IV fluid bags (with required 
		tubing attached by tape) can be distributed to individual soldiers who can carry 
		the bag inside their clothing.

		c. Extra clothing and blankets should be available for use by patients during
		treatment and evacuation, especially when their clothing has become torn or 
		soaked in blood. Check patients awaiting treatment and evacuation for cold 
		injuries frequently.

	2. Proper precautions will prevent injuries associated with use of stoves and heaters.

		a. Only properly trained soldiers should be permitted to set up, light, refuel, and
		maintain stoves.

		b. When a stove is being used, a fire guard should be posted, horseplay in the
		tent should be prohibited, and the tent doorway should be kept clear to allow 
		easy escape.

		c. The stovepipe should be kept clean and be tall enough to draft properly. Air
		intake to the stove should be unobstructed.

		d. Shelters and tents should not be sealed so tightly that ventilation is completely 
		blocked.

		e. Sleeping in running vehicles should not be permitted. When vehicles are
		parked for long waits, occupants should ensure that exhaust pipes are not blocked 
		by snowbanks, and a window should be opened slightly.

	3. The principles of proper field sanitation are the same as in warm weather (FM 21-10-1), but their 
	application during cold weather may require some modification of procedures.

		a. Locate latrines and garbage pits at minimum allowable distances from the
		food service sites (100 yds or 90 meters, downwind) and unit water supply 
		(100 feet or 30 meters), and clear snow and ice from paths leading to these 
		areas making them more accessible. Provide latrines with as much shelter as 
		possible. Commanders should prohibit indiscriminate waste disposal, and 
		insist that soldiers use only properly designated latrine and garbage areas.

		b. Snow and ice covering the ground may disguise the natural slope, and extra
		attention is required to ensure drainage from latrines and garbage pits is away 
		from living areas. Freshly fallen snow can hide ice patches, mines or other 
		hazards.

		c. If the ground is too frozen to dig latrines and garbage pits, employ above
		ground containers (such as an empty MRE box lined with a plastic bag) to 
		collect refuse. Ensure these containers are clearly marked to indicate the 
		contents for proper disposal. Urinals can be cut into snow walls outside the 
		bivouac.

		d. Leaders should provide warm water frequently to encourage personal
		hygiene. Soldiers should wash hands, feet, face, and groin daily, whether or 
		not heated water is available. During training exercises lasting several weeks, 
		commanders should consider whether the health (and morale) benefits of 
		arranging for troops to leave the field briefly for a break at a heated shower site 
		might outweigh the temporary suspension of a realistic training scenario.

		e. Food handlers should wash hands before serving and wear serving gloves
		when serving rations. Maintain larger stocks of large sizes of food serving gloves 
		for food handlers to wear over glove liners when they are serving food outdoors.

		f. Chlorine or iodine purification of cold water requires twice the usual amount
		of chemical and an extra 15 minutes waiting period before the water is safe to 
		drink. Flavor enhancers should be added just before consuming the water.

	4. Snow should be removed from the ground before tents are set up. Slippery paths and walkways 
	should be marked with warning signs, and sand, salt, ashes or straw should be spread to increase
	traction.

Soldier Tasks
Clothing and equipment malfunctions occur more often during cold weather. Simply wearing bulky cold-weather 
clothing restricts peripheral vision, movement, coordination, and manual dexterity. In combination, these effects can 
adversely impact the ability of soldiers to satisfactorily perform various aspects of their tasks.

Appreciating the problems:
	1. The properties of materials used to make the clothing and equipment are altered by
	low temperatures. Rubber, plastic, other manmade fabric and materials and even metal
	can become brittle and break more easily when cold. Zippers will freeze and break,
	rendering garments unusable.

	2. Moisture condensation is a common source of problems during cold-weather operations.

		a. Moisture from sweat or breathing can become trapped in clothing or
		sleeping bags, condense and degrade insulation.

		b. Condensation accumulates inside tents when they are occupied. This 
		adds to the weight and makes it more difficult to pack and move them later.

	3. Restricted visibility during cold-weather operations hampers many soldier tasks and particularly 
	compromises operation of vehicles or weapons systems.

		a. Cold eyeglasses, goggles, and eyepiece sights fog over easily when warm
		moist breath passes over them or when the wearer comes in from cold to 
		warmed areas. If this condensation freezes, it is difficult to remove.

		b. Hoods, balaclavas and other cold-weather headgear can restrict vision,
		particularly peripheral vision.

		c. Depth perception is reduced when air temperature is below 0°F (-18°C)
		and/or wind speed is over 10 mph. Visual acuity is reduced when air 
		temperature is below -20°F (-29°C) and/or wind speed is over 20 mph. 
		These effects become particularly significant for viewing distances greater 
		than 20 feet (6 meters).

		d. Fog, rain, and blowing snow further restrict visibility. Ice fog is an unusual
		condition that occurs when the air temperature is extremely low (usually –40°F), 
		and moisture arises from burning of fuels in engines, stoves, and firing weapon 
		systems. The fog is produced when the moisture is trapped under a layer of 
		cold air and wind is not present to disperse it.

	4. Weapon use in extreme cold creates problems that can affect the health and performance of the 
	operators.

		a. Hangfires are more frequent, especially when the weapon has not recently
		been fired, due to effect of cold temperatures on ammunition burning. The 
		M72A2 Light Antiassault Weapon (LAW) is particularly susceptible to hangfires 
		in the cold. Backblast danger area is doubled for the LAW and tripled for the 
		Dragon.

	5. Metal can be dangerous to touch (contact frostbite) in extreme cold. Also, moisture will condense 
	on cold metal exposed to heat. Unless removed, it will freeze upon being returned to the cold, and it 
	can eventually lead to rusting. This is especially a problem with individual weapons.

	6. Wearing gloves and mittens causes a significant loss of manual dexterity.

		a. Conventionally-sized toggle switches, push-buttons, and control knobs, are
		difficult to operate when wearing gloves or mittens.

		b. The decreased dexterity might encourage individuals to remove these
		protective items while working. However, removing the gloves will allow the fingers 
		to cool and reduce blood flow to the hands, which will eventually degrade manual 
		dexterity.

		c. Blowing warm breath into mittens or gloves can cause the hands to become
		even colder. Air from the lungs contains moisture that will condense on the hands 
		and wet the inside of the handwear, contributing to further hand cooling.

Optimizing Ability to Perform Soldier Tasks:
	1. Whenever possible, avoid using clothing and equipment not specifically designed or tested for use
	in cold weather. Do not force frozen or stuck parts to move when they are cold. Lubricate zippers with 
	wax.

	2. Problems resulting from moisture trapped in clothing can be avoided.

		a. Minimize overdressing, and remove clothing layers upon entering heated
		areas from the outside.

		b. Dry clothing by hanging in the updraft of the tent to minimize condensation
		within the tent.

		c. Ensure tents and other shelters have adequate ventilation to prevent
		accumulation of moisture.

	3. Compensate for decreased visibility by increasing vigilance and slowing down. Avoid placing troops 
	near traffic areas during periods of low visibility. Use antifogging compounds on eyeglasses and 
	goggles.

	4. Increase backblast areas and warm weapons by firing at a slow rate at first to minimize the chance 
	of a hangfire or other malfunction.

	5. To avoid condensation on small arms and ammunition, they should not be brought inside warm 
	areas, unless outside storage and security is not practical.

		a. If weapons are brought inside, they should be covered and placed near the
		floor to minimize condensation.

		b. Clean and dry the weapon after it warms and before returning to cold.

	6. For tasks requiring manual dexterity, commercially-available light-weight polypropylene glove liners 
	can be worn beneath heavier gloves or mittens. The bulky outer glove can be removed to perform a 
	task. Periodically, the outer glove can be replaced to allow the fingers to rewarm. With practice, 
	soldiers will learn to compensate for the effects of gloves and other cold-weather clothing on manual 
	dexterity, movement, and performance of various tasks.

	7. Many tasks can be divided into shorter segments to allow rewarming breaks.

		a. Brief rewarming periods in a heated shelter or even time spent with the
		gloves replaced may maintain sufficient manual dexterity so that the task 
		can be completed.

		b. It may be necessary to complete the task using a two-team approach, 
		where one team works while the other rewarms.

		c. Work should be planned to avoid extended periods of inactivity (e.g. in
		formation or awaiting transportation) while troops are outside in the cold.

NBC Operations
Cold weather makes all facets of military operations more difficult than in comfortable climates, but the impact on 
military functions during nuclear, biological or chemical warfare operations can be particularly significant. Problems 
should be anticipated and contingency plans should be developed before deploying.

Appreciating the Problems:
	1. Nuclear weapon effects may be different in cold-weather operations than under other conditions. 
	Troops operating in the open on frozen ground are especially vulnerable, since they will be unable 
	to dig in rapidly.

		a. Blast effects increase over frozen or ice-covered terrain due to the high
		reflectivity. Therefore, the radius of nuclear blast is increased, and minimum 
		safe distances are increased, by as much as 50%.

		b. Loose new fallen snow is a poor blast-reflecting surface, but a good thermal
		and flash-reflecting surface. Nuclear (and conventional) blasts can trigger 
		avalanches.

		c. Packed snow and ice as well as the frozen trunks and limbs of trees can be
		converted into many small missiles from the blast of nuclear and conventional 
		warheads.

		d. Snow, frost and rain generally reduce thermal effects on combustible
		materials on the ground surface, but subsurface fires may be ignited by nuclear
		detonations in heavy tundra.

		e. Fallout patterns are difficult to predict in cold, windy conditions, and
		snowstorms can concentrate radioactive fallout.

	2. Chemical agents can be used in cold environments.

		a. The high freezing point of some agents limits their effectiveness during cold
		weather. However, the freezing point of certain nerve and choking agents is 
		low (-40 to -77°F or –40 to -50°C), and some vaporize appreciably at 
		temperatures as low as -44°F (-42°C). See Appendix E for a list of agents and 
		their properties.

		b. Frozen and unvaporized droplets of liquid chemical agents in snow will thaw
		and vaporize when contacting warm skin or when carried into heated shelters 
		on clothing and equipment.

	3. Many biological agents are resistant to low temperatures and may retain their potency for weeks 
	or months, becoming active hazards during periods of warming and thawing or when the agents are 
	carried into shelter on an individual's clothing.

	4. During thaws, radioactive fallout, chemical and biological agents can be spread far from the 
	areas of weapon deployment by natural run-off, and they can concentrate in areas of poor drainage.

	5. The function of certain NBC protective clothing and equipment used to detect radiation and 
	chemical agents is degraded in the cold.

		a. Eyepiece fogging is very common when protective masks are worn in cold
		weather.

		b. The material used in the chemical protective masks becomes stiff and brittle
		as temperatures fall below freezing, allowing them to be torn more easily than 
		in warm weather, and making it difficult to achieve a proper seal.

		c. The drinking tube on the M17 and M40 series mask will become unusable
		when temperatures are below freezing.

		d. The batteries in the IM27 used to check for radiation fail when the instrument
		is not protected from below freezing temperatures.

		e. M8/M9 detection paper is limited because only agents in liquid form can be
		detected.

		f. The M8 chemical agent alarm requires the M253 winterization kit for use
		below 20°F (-6.7°C) and has a 50-minute warm-up time.

		g. Chemical agent detectors sense volatilized agent vapors. Agents do not
		vaporize readily when it is cold, therefore the detectors respond more slowly to 
		the presence of agents.

		h. The solution in the capsules of the M256/M256A1 chemical detection kit can
		freeze, and once frozen, thawing may not restore their operability. Carry liquid 
		components in breast pocket of chemical protective clothing. The kit does not 
		work below –25°F (-32°C).

		i. To prevent contamination from entering warmed areas in buildings, a
		vestibule or airlock that is warmed to the buildings temperatures will be needed.

	6. Auto-injectors containing nerve agent antidote (atropine/pralidoxime) or anticonvulsant (diazepam) 
	freeze at temperatures below 29°F (-2°C). Injection using the auto-injector is more difficult when 
	soldiers are wearing cold-weather clothing in addition to the NBC protective clothing.

	7. Wearing NBC individual protective clothing and equipment during cold-weather operations increases 
	the risk of injuries due to cold, and even heat stress.

		a. NBC protective clothing can restrict the blood flow to the fingers and areas of
		the face, increasing the susceptibility of these areas to frostbite and limiting the 
		ability to visually inspect for signs of cold injury. Heavy work will increase sweat 
		accumulation in the gloves, increasing frostbite susceptibility in the fingers.

		b. Mask carriers should be carried inside outer garments.

		c. Wearing the impermeable NBC protective Battle Dress Overgarment (BDO)
		over heavy cold-weather clothing creates the unexpected situation where heat 
		exhaustion becomes a real possibility for soldiers working hard, even in cold 
		weather. The added insulation and decreased ventilation of NBC protective 
		clothing can result in heavy sweating and wetting of the clothing during hard 
		work, eventually degrading cold protection.

	8. NBC decontamination procedures are extremely difficult under cold-weather conditions.

		a. Water and decontamination solutions can freeze and may limit effective
		decontamination of vehicles or equipment.

		b. Skin decontamination with the M291 Skin Decontamination Kit is effective 
		in cold weather since all the components are dry. However, the older M258A1 
		kit still exists among war reserves in Germany and Korea and might be 
		distributed. Use of the old M258A1 kit may result in frostbite during cold weather. 
		Use of the alcohol pads in the M258A1 kit can supercool the skin.

Minimizing Effects of Cold on NBC Operations:
	1. Brush off or remove outer clothing before entering tents and heated shelters to avoid bringing snow 
	containing frozen contaminants inside to thaw and create an active hazard. Whenever practical, shovel 
	or plow away the top layer of snow on trails, roads within occupied areas to limit the spread of 
	contamination.

	2. When NBC weapons have been employed in a region during the winter, avoid low lying areas where 
	run-off from rain or melting snow accumulates and concentrates toxic substances.

	3. Practice integrating NBC protective clothing with cold-weather clothing. Some adjustments to 
	procedure will be required.

		a. Generally, the BDO is worn outside the cold-weather clothing, therefore, it
		may be necessary to remove insulating clothing layers before putting the BDO 
		on to prevent overheating.

		b. It may be necessary to add additional clothing layers over the BDO after it is
		donned, if changes in weather or activity warrant additional warmth. However, 
		any garment worn over the BDO will become contaminated during chemical 
		exposure and will have to be discarded and replaced with new issue clothing 
		(leaders should anticipate this by having replacement clothing supplies on hand).

		c. Vapor barrier boots or issue overboots are authorized replacements for
		chemical protective boots.

		d. Chemical protective gloves are worn underneath cold-weather gloves and/or
		mittens. Individuals whose tasks require a high degree of manual dexterity may 
		be unable to wear cold-weather gloves or mittens over the rubber gloves. In this 
		case, polypropylene glove liners worn beneath the protective gloves may provide 
		some protection from the cold for brief periods.

	4. Using the protective mask during cold weather requires some additional procedural modification.

		a. Before deploying, rivet heads inside the mask should be covered with
		adhesive tape to prevent possible contact frostbite. M3/M4 winterization 
		kits should be installed on chemical protective masks (M17 and M40 
		series) when temperatures are below 23°F (-5°C). This kit contains an ice 
		particle prefilter fitted over inlet valves to prevent frost accumulating on the 
		inlet caps. It also includes two inlet valves and two nose cup valves of a 
		softer rubber that does not become hard and brittle in the cold. M3/M4
		winterization kits increase the work of breathing.

		b. When it is cold, the protective mask should be donned normally. However,
		clearing the mask by the usual procedure of quickly exhaling maximally will 
		fog the lens. Instead, exhale steadily and slowly.

		c. The M6A2 hood should not cover the mask voicemeter outlet valve when 
		the temperature is below freezing. The hood voicemeter outlet valve 
		assembly cover should be pulled open below the voicemeter outlet valve 
		assembly cover to allow moisture to escape.

		d. To prevent the outlet valve from freezing and sticking to the seat, lift the 
		outlet valve cover and rotate the disc while exhaling.

		e. In extreme cold weather (˂ 0°F or -18°C), mask carriers must be worn 
		under the parka to keep the mask warm and flexible enough to provide an 
		adequate seal. Practice donning the mask when the carrier is worn under 
		the parka.

		f. CAUTION! Do not adjust the harness straps on the mask too tightly. This
		will reduce blood flow to skin of the head and face and can cause frostbite.

		g. The mask should be wiped thoroughly dry after use to remove condensation
		that could freeze inside.

	5. Radiation detectors (IM27), chemical agent alarms (M8), and chemical agent detectors 
	(M256/M256A1) should be kept warm to ensure that batteries remain operational, and liquid 
	containing components (M256/M256A1) do not freeze. Carry spare batteries inside clothing to keep 
	them warm.

	6. Chemical agent detector paper and tape and the M256/M256A1 detection kits all require more time 
	in the presence of agents to give a positive indication when temperatures are below freezing.

		a. Store the detector paper, tape and kits inside the parka during the day and in
		sleeping bags at night to keep them warm.

		b. In extreme cold, chemical agents may not vaporize sufficiently to be sensed
		by detectors, so samples may need to be warmed in the presence of the detector, 
		or the vapors concentrated by placing a box or bag over the suspected 
		contaminant, and sampling from a small hole in the container.

	7. Protect nerve agent antidote and anticonvulsant auto-injectors from freezing.

		a. Auto-injectors should not be carried in the external pocket on the BDO when
		the temperature is below freezing. Place them in an inner pocket where body 
		heat will keep them warm. A string should be tied to the auto-injector, and 
		threaded through the outer layers of clothing and tied to an outside pocket or 
		belt. The auto-injector can be rapidly extracted from within the clothing by pulling 
		the string (practice this).

		b. Frozen auto-injectors are still usable after being thawed if they do not appear
		broken or cracked.

	8. When it is cold enough to freeze decontamination solutions or if using the alcohol pads from the 
	M258A1 kit on the skin would risk frostbite, alternative dry decontamination can be accomplished.

		a. Combining 2 parts supertropical bleach (STB) and 3 parts diatomaceous
		earth makes a dry mix that will inactivate chemical agents. This mixture can 
		be used directly on skin. Decontamination of footwear and skis is accomplished 
		by using shuffle boxes containing the dry mix. Other clothing and equipment 
		can be dusted with the mix.

		b. Heated air blown over contaminated items removes chemical agents by
		evaporation. When decontamination solutions and/or water are frozen or 
		not available, decontamination of vehicles and equipment can be 
		accomplished using high temperature vehicle exhaust or forced air heaters. 
		This decontamination method should only be performed outdoors. The use 
		of heated air will increase the contamination threat downwind.

	9. Pyridostigmine bromide (PB) is a pre-treatment given to soldiers at risk of chemical nerve agent 
	exposure. PB does not adversely affect thermoregulation in the cold and PB does not increase 
	susceptibility to hypothermia.

Leadership
The principles of leadership are unaffected by the weather, but challenges for leaders, especially of company and 
smaller-sized units, can be profound during cold weather. To accomplish their mission, leaders must contend with 
not only the enemy soldier, but also the stress of the environment on their men and equipment. The preceding
sections have focused on the effects of cold weather on the soldier's biological functioning. However, the stress of 
cold can also adversely affect attitudes and morale, and leaders must recognize and cope with these effects to 
maintain their unit's effectiveness.

Leadership Challenges During Cold-Weather Operations:
	1. Many soldiers come from regions where winters are not severe, and few have experience in living 
	outdoors during cold weather. Initially, these soldiers may lack confidence in their ability to cope with 
	and survive in cold weather.

	2. The cold can seem inescapable. Even when soldiers are able to stay warm, the effects of cold are 
	felt in awkward cold-weather clothing, confinement to small shelters and problems with vehicles and 
	equipment. These effects can lead to anger, frustration and depression, which can be intensified by 
	fatigue, periods of isolation, and shortened daylight hours.

	3. When conditions are extremely cold and soldiers have been out for a long time, the need to stay 
	warm tends to become the individual's most important concern.

		a. Soldiers may appear confused or forget how to do things they are trained to
		do.

		b. Some soldiers may attempt to shirk their duties in order to avoid the cold and
		stay warm.

	4. The need to wear multiple layers of clothing or remain bundled in sleeping bags and blankets when 
	it is cold, combined with extended periods of darkness can intensify the sense of isolation soldiers 
	often experience when they are separated from home, family and friends. Some individuals respond to 
	these feelings by "huddling up" to keep warm, and withdrawing within themselves away from the unit. 
	This can lead to mental sluggishness, increased susceptibility to cold injuries and degrade individual 
	effectiveness, unit discipline and cohesion.

Positive Leadership and the Right Attitude:
	1. Leaders are responsible for prevention of cold injury among their troops. 
		
		a. Susceptibility to cold injury varies considerably, and safe exposure times 
		for different soldiers exposed to the same cold-weather conditions also vary 
		considerably.

		b. Newly assigned individuals, who have little or no cold-weather training and
		experience, often sustain cold injuries.

		c. Individuals with considerable cold-weather experience (often those in
		leadership positions) can become nonchalant or desensitized to the threat of 
		cold injury. Leaders must be alert for carelessness even in soldiers 
		experienced in cold weather operations.

	2. Soldiers need to be taught that when it is cold, tasks may be more difficult, but they are not 
	impossible. This knowledge comes from confidence in their abilities to survive and perform their 
	mission during cold weather.

		a. Leaders can build this confidence in their men by having them practice 
		tasks and survival skills outdoors in the cold, and by conducting cold-weather 
		training exercises.

		b. After several weeks of training and experience in cold weather, most soldiers
		learn to cope fairly well.

		c. Leaders must be alert and avoid the common trap of allowing cold-weather
		training exercises to become a camping trip. If this occurs, soldiers will become 
		distracted from accomplishing their mission. Leaders must remind soldiers that 
		their job is to fight, and the purpose of the training exercise is to teach them how 
		to carry out their mission under cold-weather conditions.

	3. A positive "can do" attitude helps in coping with cold-weather problems. Leadership must be 
	aggressive and emphasize personal example to demonstrate that cold conditions are beatable.

		a. Direct supervision should be emphasized.

		b. Ensure duties are properly performed and work is equitably distributed
		among all unit members.

		c. Be alert for individuals who have withdrawn from the group. Leaders 
		should keep talking to their troops and encourage them to talk among 
		themselves. Use the buddy system to maintain communication, and to 
		watch for cold injuries.

		d. Keep soldiers busy and physically active. Plan operations carefully to 
		avoid unnecessary periods where troops are left standing in the open.

		e. Use hot food to improve morale.

		f. Allow soldiers more time to accomplish tasks and more discretion regarding
		how to accomplish them. However, do not allow them to use the cold as an 
		excuse for failing to carry out orders, comply with unit SOP's or properly 
		perform their duties.

	COLD-WEATHER PREPARATION 
		INDIVIDUALS:
			1. LEARN TO SURVIVE AND PERFORM DUTIES IN THE COLD
			2. OPTIMIZE PHYSICAL FITNESS
			3. INSPECT-COLD WEATHER CLOTHING AND SURVIVAL KIT
			4. PRACTICE WEARING COLDWEATHER CLOTHING
			5. MAINTAIN PHYSICAL FITNESS 
		UNITS:
			6. CONDUCT COLD-WEATHER TRAINING
			7. ESTABLISH UNIT BUDDY SYSTEM
			8. IDENTIFY SUSCEPTIBLE TROOPS
			9. EXPECT SUPPLY PROBLEMS (STOCK LARGE SIZE NBC
			INDIVIDUAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING)
			10. REASSESS SOPs FOR FIELD FEEDING, FIELD SANITATION,
			MEDICAL EVACUATION

	1. Units preparing for deployment to cold-weather regions must anticipate the effects of the 
	environment on the functioning of the individual as well as the unit. Preparation should involve steps 
	to minimize those effects.

	2. Units deploying to cold-weather regions should conduct training for their soldiers on basic winter 
	skills and cold-weather survival.

		a. It is especially important that soldiers practice wearing the coldweather
		clothing to ensure that the fit is correct and the individual knows how to
		wear the gear.

		b. Soldiers should practice performing their duties while wearing cold-weather 
		clothing, since this gear restricts movement considerably. It is also important 
		that soldiers practice donning individual NBC protective gear while wearing 
		cold-weather clothing.

	3. Winter operations are physically demanding, and troops must be in peak physical condition.
		
		a. Units on alert, or identified for future deployment, should immediately 
		optimize their physical training program, and spend more time training 
		outdoors in the cold to accustom individuals to the effects of cold.

		b. Outdoor training should not be halted when temperatures are cold. Rather 
		than restrict outdoor activities at certain preselected temperatures, 
		commanders should establish programs in which increasingly protective
		countermeasures (clothing, surveillance) are initiated as conditions become 
		colder. Such programs build soldiers' confidence in their ability to complete 
		their missions, regardless of weather. Appendix B shows recommended guidance 
		for conducting, modifying, restricting or canceling training according to wind chill 
		conditions.

	4. Each soldier must have an individual cold-weather survival kit (Appendix D) and all required cold-
	weather clothing in proper working condition.

	5. In addition to conducting training to help soldiers prepare to operate and survive under cold-
	weather conditions, unit leaders should anticipate how the disruption of normal unit procedures due 
	to the weather conditions will affect unit operations. 

		a. Identify unit members who have previously experienced cold injuries. These
		soldiers should receive intensive retraining in cold-injury prevention, and 
		should be monitored closely while deployed. Soldiers who have little or no cold 
		weather experience should also receive thorough training.

		b. Establish a buddy system within the unit to increase unit cohesiveness by
		minimizing the sense of isolation that individuals may experience during cold 
		weather. A buddy system will also help to monitor for signs of cold injury 
		among unit members.

		c. Field sanitation procedures should be reviewed and modified as necessary
		if weather conditions are extreme. Aspects requiring particular re-emphasis 
		include placement, maintenance and closure of latrines, water purification and 
		sanitary food handling.

		d. Anticipate supply difficulties, and stockpile emergency stores of critical
		items. During cold-weather operations, units will need more of the larger sizes 
		of NBC protective clothing, since soldiers wear NBC clothing over multiple layers 
		of bulky cold weather clothing. Develop storage and transportation procedures 
		for food and water that prevent freezing, and determine measures for thawing 
		frozen supplies. Set up procedures for keeping rations hot until received by 
		individual soldiers in the field.

		e. Establish safety SOPs for personnel travelling by vehicle away from the unit's
		bivouac site. At a minimum, these SOPs should require all vehicle occupants to 
		have their sleeping bag, extra clothing and individual survival kit with them 
		whenever they leave the unit area. The SOPs should also designate what actions 
		are to be taken in case the vehicle is disabled or the driver becomes lost.

	KEY POINTS DURING COLD-WEATHER OPERATIONS
		1. SHELTER FROM THE ELEMENTS IS SECONDARY ONLY TO DEFENDING
		AGAINST ENEMY ACTIONS.

		2. EAT AND DRINK MORE FOOD AND FLUID THAN NORMAL.

		3. KEEP CLOTHING DRY. REDUCE LAYERS AND VENTILATE TO ALLOW
		SWEAT TO EVAPORATE WHEN ACTIVITY INCREASES.

		4. BE PREPARED FOR SUDDEN WEATHER CHANGES.

		5. AVOID COLD INJURIES BY USING A BUDDY SYSTEM AND FREQUENT
		SELF-CHECKS ESPECIALLY WHEN INDIVIDUALS ARE NOT ACTIVE OR
		THEIR DUTIES REQUIRE THEM TO REMOVE THEIR GLOVES. USE THIN
		LINER GLOVES TO AVOID CONTACT FROSTBITE.

		6. IMMEDIATELY TREAT PERSONS SHOWING ANY SIGN/SYMPTOM OF 
		COLD INJURY. REWARM SOLDIERS WHO BEGIN TO SHIVER VIGOROUSLY.

		7. SICK, INJURED, AND WOUNDED INDIVIDUALS ARE VERY SUSCEPTIBLE
		TO COLD INJURIES.

		8. EACH SOLDIER SHOULD CARRY AN INDIVIDUAL COLD-WEATHER
		SURVIVAL KIT AT ALL TIMES.

		9. DRIVERS AND PASSENGERS SHOULD ALWAYS HAVE A SLEEPING BAG
		AND EXTRA COLD-WEATHER CLOTHING WHEN TRAVELING BY VEHICLE
		AWAY FROM THE UNIT BIVOUAC LOCATION.

	IF SEPARATED FROM YOUR UNIT DURING COLD WEATHER:
		
		KEEP CALM
		
		YOU MAY ONLY BE DISORIENTED. STOP, LOOK AND LISTEN FOR SIGNS OF 
		THE MAIN UNIT. ATTEMPT TO RETRACE YOUR PATH BACK TO YOUR LAST 
		KNOWN POSITION.

		KEEP TOGETHER - GROUPS MUST NOT SPLIT UP. IF SCOUTING PARTIES
		ARE REQUIRED, THEY SHOULD CONSIST OF AT LEAST TWO SOLDIERS WHO 
		GO ONLY SHORT DISTANCES AHEAD AND MARK THEIR TRAIL VERY CLEARLY.

		KEEP WARM

		ASSEMBLE OR IMPROVISE SHELTERS WHENEVER STOPPING, EVEN IF ONLY 
		FOR A SHORT TIME. WHENEVER POSSIBLE, USE WOOD OR OTHER LOCALLY 
		AVAILABLE FUEL FOR FIRES AND CONSERVE SUPPLIES. BURNING A SINGLE
		CANDLE INSIDE A TENT OR VEHICLE PROVIDES SOME HEAT. 

		KEEP FED AND HYDRATED

		COLLECT ALL INDIVIDUAL FOOD AND WATER SUPPLIES AND INSTITUTE RATIONING.
		
		KEEP SAFE

		USE CAUTION WHEN TRAVELING AND AVOID NATURAL HAZARDS SUCH AS CLIFFS, 
		ROCK SLIDE OR AVALANCHE AREAS. IF TRAVEL ON FROZEN RIVERS OR LAKES 
		CANNOT BE AVOIDED, STAY NEAR THE BANKS, DO NOT STAND CLOSE TOGETHER 
		AND WATCH FOR SPOTS OF UNSUPPORTED ICE RESULTING FROM CHANGES IN 
		WATER LEVEL.

End of Text.
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