LESSON 4 THE HORSE Value of the Horse : Oldest of all domesticated species except the dog, the horse is by far the most useful as he is the noblest of the animals. Under the saddle he carries the rider or the pack upon his back. In harness he draws the carriage for pleasure, or he hauls the wagon, the plow, the harrow, the cultivator, and the reaper as matters of business. Without the horse, modern American farming would be impossible. To make the most of his services, the best of horsemanship must be employed. Prerequisites of a Good Horseman : Before one can be a good horseman, he must: 1. Understand the nature of the horse. 2. Know the methods employed by the best horsemen, both in the handling and in the care of horses. 3. Get practice, practice, and yet more practice. 4. Have always, as a driver, a clear comprehension of precisely what the horse is expected to do before attempting to set him to work. 5. Be able to convey to the horse exact information as to what is expected of him, and do it in ways that will encourage and stimulate, not frighten or confuse him. 6. Like horses so well that if they were human beings they would be his intimate friends. Nature of the Horse : While horses, like people, vary greatly in their individual dispositions, yet in general it may be said that the following are outstanding characteristics of the horse: 1. Timidity: Wild or domesticated horses are timid and therefore inclined to run away from strange objects or frightful sounds, and even from things familiar if suddenly and unexpectedly encountered. Hence, never punish a horse except for definite disobedience, and then he certain that he knows exactly what it is that he has done wrong. He will accept this kind of punishment like a gentleman and profit by it, but a good horse will either resent abuse and fight, or he will be made so unreliable as to be dangerous. The horse is especially "skittish" about what comes up from behind. For this reason a good horseman always "keeps an eye to the rear" in driving and speaks before touching a horse, especially when he is in the stable. The horse may easily frighten himself. For example, a slight "start" when he is hitched to something which rattles when it moves, is likely to be converted into a first-class runaway. Therefore, if there is danger that a horse will become frightened, keep him moving, but do not let him trot if it can be helped. Whatever happens, the driver must keep his head. It is the driver's business to discover any fearsome object before the horse discovers it. If he refuses to go up to it or pass it, by no means should he be whipped. If given time to study it out, with an encouraging word from the driver, he will, in nine cases out of ten, proceed upon his way. 2. Curiosity: Curiosity is a highly developed faculty of the horse, and if left to himself he will ordinarily return to examine the object that has frightened him. Hence it is useless to follow a colt that is shying away from you—he will return presently to look you over. However, never strike a horse with a halter when you turn him into the pasture, even in a spirit of play, for you will have trouble in getting him again when you want him. 3. Pride: Of all his characteristics, none is more prominent than pride. While some horses are indifferent, others are as proud as Lucifer, and most good horses work best in good harness well fitted. Some of them behave decidedly better when hitched to a good turnout than when asked to haul a dilapidated and rattling piece of machinery. 4. Workmanship: The good horse well trained is a good workman. That is to say, he likes to do the things that he has learned. In most teams one or the other takes the lead. It is only the horse inferior in intellect or abused in treatment that takes no interest in his work. Furthermore, it is the horse which is most interested in his work that will last the longest and accomplish the most. The experienced farm horse knows how to do most kinds of work and is an exceedingly good judge of his driver. It is good policy to stand well in his esteem. 5. Dependence: The horse is naturally dependent upon his driver, and this is the driver's chief advantage over him. No man, can master a horse except by winning his confidence. A good horse well trained depends upon man's superior intelligence, and such a horse will no more "run away" than will a dog leave his master. Good horsemen frequently take advantage of this trait in training green colts and purposely get them into predicaments from which they cannot extricate themselves, as, for example, allowing them to become entangled in the harness. Once having been relieved from such a difficulty, the horse quickly comes to depend at all times upon his driver. 6. Memory: The horse has an excellent memory and seldom forgets what he has learned, bad as well as good. Be careful, therefore, what you teach him. 7. Temper: A few horses are vicious and some are insane. The vicious horse is likely to kick, to bite, or to strike with the front feet. Of these three habits the last is the most dangerous. Almost any horse is likely to kick if something touches him from behind without warning. Therefore always speak to a horse before touching him. Some horses have been ruined by ill treatment and a few are intolerably stupid, but these are extremes and most cases of the kind have been produced by bad management. Learning the Methods of Good Horsemen : These can be learned only by wide observation and long experience, keeping the eyes always open to the customs of good horsemen—what they do and what they do not do. For example: If you have occasion to quiet a horse, pat him upon the shoulder or the neck, not upon the nose. He resents the latter just as you would. If he is afraid to pass an object, walk beside him, but never lead him by the bit. A good horseman never drops his lines until he is ready to unhitch. Practice : Wide observation and much study are required for good horsemanship, but even so practice is absolutely necessary in order to acquire the "feel" of the lines, the feeling of assurance that goes with good driving, and the ability to inspire confidence on the part of the horse, without which the best results are impossible. Knowing in Advance What Is to Be Done : Many unskilled horsemen strike the horse with the whip or the lines before telling him to start. Now the horse is entitled to know what he is expected to do. Before giving orders, therefore, be assured that you yourself know exactly what is to be done, how you are going to do it, and the part which the horse is expected to perform. Communicating with the Horse : Good horsemen do not yell at horses nor do they continually tap with the whip or the lines. The one will confuse and possibly frighten ; the other will breed laziness. A few words of command are necessary, but for the most part horses are driven with the lines. Continual talking will make them careless of what is said. They do not understand a general conversation, and they grow heedless of continuous and harmless clatter of any kind. Around horses, therefore, keep silent or speak to good purpose ; and when you speak, do it distinctly and in a tone of quiet assurance, as if obedience were to be taken for granted without being enforced. Attitude Toward Horses : No man can be a good horseman who dislikes horses, or who believes that "every horse should know his master." It is imperative for good horsemanship that the animal should have confidence in and place absolute reliance upon his human companion as a very superior creature. Never deceive a horse except to encourage him in the belief that no harm can come his way while you are there. This laudable deception is the key to good horsemanship. Whoever is to handle horses should familiarize himself with the names and the location of the different parts of the body. This work can be done by study of the following chart, and it should be completed with the live animal at the first opportunity for practice work.
LESSON 5 GROOMING AND CARE OF THE FARM HORSE The first step in learning the handling of horses is grooming, commonly but erroneously called "currying." As it must be done every day, it is important to know how this work should be performed in the very best way and with the least consumption of time and labor. Object : While good grooming improves the coat of the horse and adds to his appearance, the main reason for doing it carefully and regularly is to assist in keeping the skin and coat healthy. Keeping clean those parts upon which the collar and other portions of the harness bear, aids in preventing them from becoming "galled," that is, irritated and sore. Tools : The ordinary grooming tools are: currycomb ("humane," or "reform," type preferred), dandy brush, rub rag, and hoof pick. The card is sometimes used but it is a crude tool; and the sweat scraper, while used with race horses, is but rarely found upon the farm. 1. The currycomb is used to loosen up dirt which has "caked" upon the coat. This should be the first step in grooming. The movement employed by the hand and arm in the use of this tool should be circular and the pressure only enough to get results and not enough to irritate the skin. Keep the currycomb off the head, and do not use it on the knees, hocks, or the parts below. 2. The dandy brush: When particular attention is given to grooming and an extra glossy coat is desired, a good body brush of bristles will be needed. With farm horses, however, the work can be well done, and much more speedily, with the dandy brush. This brush should be vigorously applied in the direction in which the hair lies. The groom should stand far enough away from the horse to enable the use of considerable pressure in his strokes. Starting in at the head, he should proceed over the whole body, remembering to brush thoroughly all parts of the legs, particularly under the fetlocks. Muddy legs should not be washed, but the mud should be allowed to dry and then be thoroughly removed with the brush. Manes and tails should be faithfully brushed out because, when neglected, the skin from which the long hair grows becomes itchy, and this leads to rubbing. Neither the card nor the currycomb should be used on manes and tails because too much hair would be broken off. Brushes may be cleaned by occasionally passing them over the currycomb and knocking the dust out of the comb against the side of the partition. 3. The rub rag: A linen salt sack is the best—it should be used in finishing in order to remove the surface dust. The rub rag is also used after the sweat scraper, which in some cases— although not as a rule with farm work horses—is employed to dry horses which are brought in hot and wet with sweat. 4. The hoof pick: At the time the horse is groomed, it is a wise plan to pick out the feet, that is, clean out the sand, gravel, and dirt that have collected under the frog and in the walls of the hoof. At this time also the condition of the hoof and the shoe should be noted. Unshod horses should have their feet leveled and the outer wall rounded off with a hoof rasp at least once a month. Rounding the outer wall tends to prevent its chipping off. When to Groom : Although seldom practiced, the best time to clean the horse is in the evening after he has cooled out from his day's work. When this is the rule, a light grooming in the morning is all that is necessary. The work should be done well but with speed, for time will not permit more than the doing of bare essentials. There are a number of practices of the experienced groom which have to be omitted on the farm for lack of time. Blanketing : Blankets are used, for the most part, on farm horses that have to stand exposed to the winter elements while waiting for their loads or drivers. It is a wise precaution, during the winter season, to blanket horses that come into the stable very hot. Putting a big handful of straw over the loin and under the blanket aids in cooling out. The doors and windows in the horse barn should be so arranged as to prevent drafts. Care of the Shoulders : The most vulnerable part of a work horse is his shoulder. If the collar is too small it may choke him; if it is too large, which is more often the case, it will bear so heavily on the point of the shoulder as to wear off the skin; and if it is lumpy, which is still more frequently the case, the shoulder is almost certain to become "galled", that is, hard bunches are raised upon which the skin will sooner or later break, leaving a sore. Quite aside from all questions of cruelty, no horse can work well with a sore shoulder against which a collar is constantly pressing with more or less of a seesawing motion, the natural result of walking. A shoulder once made sore is exceedingly difficult to heal, and every good horseman prides himself upon never allowing such a condition to develop. The collar is never too hard, but the driver should see that it fits like a good shoe, and even then he must give constant attention to the shoulder. The mane frequently works under the collar and irritates the skin, softened by the perspiration. The driver should be careful that this lock of mane is not allowed to remain under the collar while at work, and to prevent it very frequent attention is necessary. Then, too, in the spring of the year when the horses are soft and the skin perhaps none too clean after a winter of "roughing through," the shoulder sweats profusely and a sticky gummy secretion is freely thrown out. If this is left all day without attention the shoulder will become "scalded" and with continued neglect extremely sore, even to the point of making the horse unfit for work. What the driver should do is to lift the collar from the neck at least once an hour in the early season—the neck becomes toughened later on—and wipe the shoulder and the collar with the hand or better with a cloth carried for the purpose. A little later all that will be necessary is to occasionally lift the collar off the neck to let the shoulder cool and dry. Care of the Collar : A bad driver pays no attention to the collar until he is ready to put it on in the morning. He will probably then "scrape the gum off" with a pocket knife or an old file, and hammer the collar a little with a stick "to soften it." The good teamster cleans the collar as soon as he removes it from the neck in the evening and while the gum is warm and soft, using a cloth or a wet sponge with a little soap. He never does anything to roughen the surface of the collar where it bears upon the shoulder of the horse. No collar is too hard if only it is smooth; indeed, collars have been made of steel. LESSON 6 HARNESSING AND HITCHING UP FARM HORSES There are many different styles of work harness and good teamsters vary somewhat in their methods of doing similar things, yet all agree with the old saying, "A team well harnessed and put together is half driven." General Statement : The universal custom is that all harness is put on and taken off from the left, or near, side. The novice will commend himself, therefore, at once if he knows which side of the horse to approach for harnessing and unharnessing, just as he will discredit himself by going up to the right-hand side. Parts of the Harness : The first step is to learn the parts of the harness as shown in Fig. 1.
HARNESSING THE HORSE TO BE DRIVEN SINGLY We shall assume that the horse is in his stall, groomed and ready to be harnessed. How shall we proceed? Handling and Placing the Harness : 1. Remove the harness from the hanger and carry it on the right arm, the right hand grasping the off side of the saddle and the left hand the near side. 2. From the near side of the horse, place the harness gently on the back near the loin (in order to allow slack for the crupper), pull down the breeching to proper position, and put the crupper in place. See that there are no hairs from the tail caught between the crupper and the dock. 3. Lift the saddle clear of the back, carry it forward into place, and draw the pad girth sufficiently tight. For two-wheeled carts, this girth must be tight, but for four-wheeled vehicles only moderately so. 4. Get the bridle and breast collar, carry them on the left arm, take off the halter and slip the breast collar over the head. Hold the bridle by the crown piece in the right hand, which may also grasp the foretop to steady the head, raise the bridle until it is in position, and then with the left hand slip the bit into the mouth. Do not crowd the bit against the teeth. If the horse is reluctant to take it, he can usually be induced to do so by crowding the thumb into one side of the mouth and a finger into the opposite side. In very cold weather the bit should be warmed by the breath or by holding it a moment in the hand, else it may stick to the tongue. When the horse has taken the bit, gently draw the crown piece over the ears, being careful to straighten out the foretop and the mane. The foretop should be underneath the brow band. Fasten the throat latch loosely and see that blinds, brow band, and throat latch fit comfortably. The bit should not be so low that the horse will be likely to get his tongue over it ; neither should it be so high that it will wrinkle and make the skin sore at the corners of the mouth. 5. Secure the lines to the bit (assuming they are doubled through the pad-terrets—the rings on the pad), straighten the lines, buckle their ends together, double them, and run them through the near pad-terret. Hitching Up : 1. In "hitching up" or "putting to" the single horse, remember that shaft ends are rather frequently broken by attempting to back the horse between them while the shafts or thills are resting upon the ground. The shaft should be raised from the ground and the horse brought under, or he should be placed in front of the shaft and the vehicle brought forward from behind. 2. With the horse in the shafts, run the shaft ends through the tugs, or shaft bearers. Fasten the traces and so adjust the length as to bring the horse as close to the vehicle as possible without danger of hitting the quarters, hocks, or feet. Then draw the tug girth tight enough to hold the shafts firmly in place (this for fourwheelers; for carts, allow a little slack), and finally fasten the holdback straps. 3. The hold-back straps should be so wrapped about the shafts that when the traces are drawn taut, the breeching can be pulled three or four inches back from the quarters. It is well to wrap hold-backs or breeching straps in the following manner: Bring the point of the strap underneath the trace and shaft a few inches in front of the leather loop on the shaft, then bring it around over the shaft and pull it tight. Give it two or three wraps about the shaft, depending upon the length of the strap ; bring the point back through the loop on the shaft from the outside, and carry it under the trace to the buckle, HARNESSING THE TEAM Placing the Harness: 1. If the collar is closed at the top, turn it upside down, slip it gently over the head, and reverse it to the proper position at the throat before attempting to adjust it to the shoulder. If it is buckled, unfasten the top and, raising the collar into position, hold it there with the left hand while fastening it at the top with the right hand. Collars taken off and put on over the head without unfastening will last longer than those which are opened at the top —some teamsters say at least twice as long. The open collar will last longer and fit better if it is buckled together as soon as it is removed. With the horse's head in the position in which he holds it when at work and with the collar pressed firmly back, it should fit snugly on all its bearing surface and leave room to insert the flat of the hand at the windpipe. If sweat pads are used to make collars fit, they should be always in place. Well-fitting collars which are kept clean go far toward enabling a horse to do his full duty with ease to himself and his driver. 2. After the collar is in place, take the harness from the hanger with the right arm underneath it, the right hand grasping the off hame, and the left, the near one. Do not drag the harness on the back of the horse, but lift it clear of him, and carry it well forward, putting the hames on the collar and the rest of the harness on the back with enough slack to enable the hames to go into place easily. Buckle the hames, remembering that they should fit the collar snugly. The hame strap at the bottom should lie drawn tight. One day's work with improperly fitted hames may ruin a good collar, or if the hames are loose the neck is almost certain to become sore. 3. Lift the breeching clear of the back, put it in place, buckle (he belly band, and fasten the breeching straps to the ring in the rear end of the martingale, or choke strap. 4. Put on the bridle as directed for the single horse. Then, using the hitch rein, back the horse out of his stall, secure his mate, and after watering, the team is ready to be "hitched up"' or "put to," whatever kind of wagon or tool is to be used. Hitching Up: 1. If the team is to be hitched to a wagon, walk it to the point of the wagon tongue. Then, with a hitch rein up close in each hand, quietly step each horse into his place beside the tongue. Leading or driving horses across tongues causes needless breaking, particularly when the tongues are made of brash wood, as are those of many farm implements. 2. Take down the lines, throwing the off line over the horse's back to the near side; fasten them to the bit rings after seeing that the checks are not twisted, double them twice, and hang them on the outside hame of the near horse. Then tie up the hitch reins. 3. Pick up the neck yoke and adjust the martingale and breast straps. Slip the center ring of the neck yoke over the point of the tongue, and quietly back the horses into position for fastening the traces, the length of which should be such as to prevent the neck yoke from slipping off the tongue and not so tight as to be uncomfortable 4. Fasten the inside trace of the near horse, and the inside and outside traces of the off horse; then walk around the horses' heads, carry back the lines, and fasten the outside trace of the near horse. The team is now ready to be driven. This procedure is handiest for hitching to right-hand machinery. In hitching to carriages and wagons, it is frequently the practice to finish on the off side and mount the driver's seat from that side. With young or restive horses, it is advisable to carry the lines on the arm while hitching and unhitching. Unhitching: In unhitching, reverse the procedure as outlined above for "hitching up," and be careful to prevent lines and traces from being dragged about and cut or soiled by tramping. Going at these things unsystematically is often the cause of damaged harness and spoiled horses. The careless handler of horses' harness and machinery frequently costs more in delay and repairs than his services are worth, to say nothing about losing the pleasure which is derived from work well done. LESSON 7 WORKING FARM HORSES A horse that is well groomed, properly harnessed, and hitched up is ready for work, and his usefulness depends entirely upon the skill with which he is driven and managed. DRIVING Do not hurry at the start. Take up your lines, draw them taut, speak to the team, and start slowly. Start both horses of the team together; do not let one of them get ahead of the other. The most useful gait of the farm horse is a rapid walk, and the teamster has much to do in maintaining and perfecting this gait. Horses work best for firm, though quiet and kind teamsters; more work is usually done where there is the least fuss. Keep your eyes open, watch the team, and watch the road ahead. A gentle pressure, just feeling the horse's mouth, should be exerted on the lines, except for emergencies, when a firm line promptly applied may save trouble. The two extremes are bad, that is, driving with loose, flopping lines or hanging on to the lines with a "hard hand," making the horse pull the weight of the driver with his month. The one gives no control of the team and may be dangerous. The other teaches the horse to pull with the mouth, making him a "hard driver," besides giving no slack of line for an emergency. It is the sudden taking up of the slight slack, which goes with all good driving, that may prevent a runaway. HORSE TALK Horses cannot understand conversation. All good horsemen therefore teach them the few words they need to know and are careful not to confuse them by a conglomeration of horse talk which they cannot comprehend. The words commonly used are: "Whoa," pronounced "woe" in a moderate voice but with a short decided inflection which seems to command instant obedience. The life of the driver or of his passengers may some time depend upon its being promptly obeyed. Do not, like poor horsemen, utter a succession of commands—"whoa," "whoa," "whoa," etc. The effect of this is to excite the horse and probably to send him off, at least to give him a very poor opinion of you, in which case you have lost his confidence. Say "whoa" once and expect it to be heeded, enforcing the injunction with the lines if necessary. This is the first command taught a green colt and it shoul4 never be used for any other meaning than to slop and stand still. Indifferent horsemen sometimes use the word with a long drawn-out pronunciation, "whoa-a-a," to steady the team when under conditions likely to irritate or frighten it. But a different word is better, so that "whoa" shall mean but one thing. The term "Steady" is commonly used to quiet the team. "Get Up." This command, or a clucking sound made by the tongue against the side of the mouth, means to go ahead. Many good horsemen start the team by tightening the lines as a signal that everything is ready for a start. In general, good horsemen use the lines as much as possible for conveying information and speak only when necessary. "Back" means, of course, to go backward in a straight line. It is the last word taught the green horse because, in general, horses do not like to back. Their legs are built for going ahead, and a horse never goes backward unless compelled to do so. The lines help, but no good horseman will pull a horse backward rapidly. It is not only cruel but sometimes dangerous. "Gee" and "Haw." As oxen are not driven with lines, the ox teamster has no means of turning to the right or the left except by words of command. With him "Gee" means "turn to the right," and "Haw" means "turn to the left." Horses are generally guided by the lines, but in some kinds of work both hands are employed, and for this reason most work horses are taught to mind "Gee" and "Haw." The same terms are used with mules, but all horse talk varies somewhat in different localities. The driver must adopt the terms of his own section, whatever they may be. No good teamster ever yells at his horses. Nothing will confuse or frighten them quicker. Nothing must be said or done to give them the slightest reason to suppose that the driver Is excited, confused, frightened, or otherwise than in full command of the situation. It is never to be forgotten that safety around horses depends upon the confidence which the horse has in his human companion, whom he regards as a very superior being, and nothing must be done to dispel that illusion. SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS Watering : Never water a horse when he is warm; it may easily ruin him. Some horses drink very rapidly, especially when thirsty, and if allowed to go to the tank they will drink enough to injure themselves before it would be suspected. A horse is never too hot for a few swallows, say a gallon or even two gallons, and he ought to have as much as that. An hour later when fully cooled he may have all he wants. Feeding : Never feed grain when the horse is heated. Hay may be fed at any time, but to feed grain to a heated horse is to "founder" him almost as certainly as to give him all the water he wants. The foundered horse is permanently "stiffened" and his usefulness, like his value, is easily reduced by one half ; besides, he works in constant misery. Feed hay at any time, but withhold grain and water until the horse is "cooled out"—anyway an hour after unhitching. This all applies with special force in the early spring when the horses are "soft." Later in the season or when at moderate work, the team may commonly be watered and fed at once upon unhitching. What constitutes a "warm" horse will have to be learned, but if sweating freely or if "lathering," he is too warm to feed or water. Sweating : A "soft" horse at any time, or any horse in hot weather, will sweat when at heavy work, but he should not show signs of weariness. If the sweat suddenly dries up on a hot day, get him into the shade and give him a rest. Resting : Rather frequent short stops for rest are preferable to occasional long ones. At these times raise the collar to air the shoulders, and pull out any strands of mane which may have worked under it. Cruelty : Probably the most cruel and useless habit a teamster can 'have is that of punishing his horses by savagely jerking them. No horse which is continually afraid of his mouth will pull well, neither will he thrive. How would you like to wear a bit in your own mouth? The only case in which punishing the mouth is necessary or justifiable is in stopping horses which have started to bolt or run away. This should be done by a sudden heavy jerk with one line, followed by attempted control with both lines, keeping the team in a straight-away course, if this is possible, until they have quieted down. In general the driver is the one to be blamed for a runaway, but it must be understood that no man can by main strength hold a horse—it is always a question of management. Backing : Be careful in backing; back slowly because horses are frequently strained in backing heavy loads for careless drivers. Mares heavy in foal may lose their foals from strains brought on ill this way. Hitching : One must use discretion in leaving horses unattended; it is not safe to tie them to wire fences which they may paw into and in which they may get their feet fastened, to the injury of both horse and fence. Bad accidents have occurred because of carelessness regarding this point. When moving from one place to another either lead or drive the horse ; never leave him to wander about. Above all do not slip off his halter and let him go loose lo the water tank. Practice : Get as much practice as you can by riding with a good teamster. Helping him to do a few jobs will likely result in his allowing you to handle the team a bit under his direction. The local harness man can tell you much about harness and may be persuaded to permit you to become familiar with the different harness parts in his shop. LESSON 13 THE WAGON AND ITS PARTS The wagons used on Illinois farms can be divided into two general types, namely, farm wagons and farm trucks. The Wagon : The farm wagon may have front wheels as large as forty-four inches in diameter and rear wheels fifty inches. Fitted with box and with rack, it is used for general farm work, but it is best adapted to the highway and for hauling to market grain, hay, live stock, and other finished products. The Truck : The truck has smaller wheels—not over thirty six inches in diameter in front and forty inches behind— and hence requires more horse power, especially on uneven ground. To offset this disadvantage the wheels have wider tires, often from four to five inches. This prevents settling into the soft ground of the fields, for the truck is used mainly on the farm, where its low platform, instead of a box, and its smaller wheels especially adapt it to hauling hay, potatoes in boxes, grain in the bundle, fencing, and all sorts of materials that are moved about upon the farm. DETAILS OF A WAGON Track : The "track" of a wagon, as marked in Fig. 1, is the lateral distance between the centers of the wheels measured on the ground. There are two standard widths for track; the wide track, which is five feet in width; and the narrow track, most generally used, which measures four feet, six inches.
Running Gear : The entire part of the wagon shown in Fig. 1, including the wheels, axles, bolsters, and reach, is called the running gear. This is what in an automobile would be called the chassis. With this running gear can be used a tight box for hauling grain or other loose material, a hay rack, a hog rack, and various other types of special bodies. Springs may be used to support the box on a wagon, but this is not common practice. In putting a hay rack on a wagon the reach is lengthened and extra bolsters are put in to hold the rack up above the wheels. In hilly countries brakes are necessary on the wheels, but in a flat prairie country these are not used. Parts of the Wagon : It is well for the student to familiarize himself with the names of the parts of a wagon. This knowledge is of importance because it will sometimes be necessary for the boy working on the farm to describe a certain part, as when something is broken or lost, and he will find this difficult if he does not know the names.
Fig. 2 shows the tongue and its attachments. It is often referred to as the pole. Note that the wagon hammer which attaches the doubletree to the wagon and through which all of the pulling force is transmitted is also a wrench which fits the nuts on the axles.
Fig. 3 shows the parts which are used with the tongue. The neck yoke fits on the front end of the tongue and is also fastened to the hames of each horse. The neck yoke, therefore, supports the front end of the tongue from the horses' necks and also guides the wagon as the horses turn one way or the other. In hitching the horses to the wagon always put on the neck yoke and slip its ring over the end of the tongue first of all. It may readily he seen that if, with the end of the tongue still lying on the ground, the harness were attached to the singletrees and the horses should suddenly become frightened, the situation would he dangerous. Always attach the lines first, then the neck yoke, and last of all the tugs or traces.
Fig. 4 shows. the details of the front part of the running gear. Fig. 5 shows the corresponding details of the rear part. Fig. 6 shows details of the wheel. (Felloe is pronounced felly.)
LESSON 14 CARE OF THE WAGON The wagon like any other implement needs care if it is to do its work and last well. GREASING : The bearings between the skeins and skein boxes, that is, the bearings upon which the wheels revolve, are the only parts of a wagon which require frequent lubrication. This should lie attended to as often as necessary to keep the surfaces from wearing bright. It is hard on the wagon and also much heavier pulling for the horses if attention is not given to this point. A good grade of axle grease is ordinarily used for the purpose, and usually applied with a wooden paddle. Fig.1 shows the common method of greasing the wagon. The axle nut is taken off and the wheel slipped cautiously outward until the skein is partly exposed, then grease, to the amount of two or three tablespoonfuls, can be applied and the wheels slipped back into place. This operation requires caution because of the danger that the wheel will slip entirely off and let the axle fall to the ground. Most farms, however, are equipped with wagon jacks with which the weight of the wagon is lifted so that the wheel may be taken entirely off, giving a better opportunity for proper cleaning and oiling.
Turning or Backing : In turning or backing a wagon, great care should be exercised that the angle of turn is not so sharp as to throw undue strain upon the tongue, the reach, and the wheel. This is one of the most common abuses to which a wagon is subjected. When a wagon with a box is turned, one of the front wheels strikes the rub iron on the side of the box. If an attempt is made to turn still shorter, a strain is not only thrown upon the wheel and tongue, but the corner of the tire cuts into the lower corner of the box, ultimately wearing the rub iron in two. With trucks in which the front wheel can turn under the rack or box, the condition will be somewhat eased, but there is an equal likelihood of breakage when too short a turn is made. Care of the Felloes : The paint quickly wears off the felloes and they should be frequently oiled. Most farmers neglect this precaution, and the result is that when the dry season comes the tires become loose. Perhaps the boy can persuade the farmer to supply a little linseed or crude oil for the purpose if he has not already provided it. Loose Tires : Never use a wagon with a loose tire, and as soon as you observe such a tire report it. The wheel is one of the most expensive parts of the wagon and is easily ruined when the tires are loose. A loose tire not only means that sand will work beneath the tire and rapidly grind out the felloe so that the tire will not lit well even after setting, but also that the spokes will soon be loosened from the hub, ruining the wheels. Temporary relief can be obtained by soaking the wheel in water or in hot oil, or by wiring the tire on the felloe. These measures, however, should be resorted to only in cases of extreme necessity. If a tire should come off when the wagon is in use, stop immediately, as a wheel in this condition will be quickly ruined. Setting : The only remedy for a loose tire is "setting," a job that is usually done by the blacksmith. To "set" the tire, it is removed from the wheel by tapping the outside of the felloe with a hammer until the tire gradually works off and comes away. It is then heated and "upset," that is, made smaller by a machine for the purpose. Being swelled by the heat it can be easily put over the wheel while hot and afterward "shrunk on" by cooling with water, which also prevents burning the wheel. Care of the Box : Fence posts, stone, manure, and such rough or dirty material should never be put into the wagon box. Special dump boards are kept on all farms for this rougher use of the wagon, and the box itself should be kept clean and whole for hauling grain. When the box is removed from the running gear, it should, if possible, be stored. under shelter to protect it from the effects of the sun and the rain. If the wagon box must be left out of doors, every possible precaution should be taken to preserve it. If it is turned bottom up and with one end higher than the other, water will drain off much better than if it is left flat. As a wagon box is too heavy to be removed In one piece, the tip-top and the top boxes are generally taken off separately. If these parts are removed while assembled, they are likely to be twisted out of shape or broken. It is much better to remove the end gates, replacing the rod so that it will not be lost, and store the parts flat. Rivets, Bolts, and Rods : As with other farm implements, any rivet or bolt on the wagon which comes loose should be tightened immediately. There are no minor abuses that will cause more rapid deterioration of a machine than carelessness in attending to these small details. "Do it now" is the motto to follow in the repair of wagons as of other machinery'. LESSON 15 THE PLOW The plow is universally recognized as the fundamental implement for tillage of the soil. The hoe and the plow in very crude forms were undoubtedly the first tools used by man for agricultural purposes, and very probably the plow will be the first implement that the city boy employed on a farm will be called upon to operate. Good Plowing : Good plowing is an art. The real plowman who takes pride in his work is an artist, producing that which is not only necessary but also beautiful to look upon—a perfectly plowed field. He turns a straight furrow of uniform width and depth, covering the trash, pulverizing the soil, and leaving the ends regular. The Walking Plow : The walking plow, turning a single narrow furrow and drawn by a two-horse team, was used almost entirely until a few years ago, but in many sections it has now been replaced by the larger riding plow, turning two or more furrows. It is an advantage to have learned plowing with the walking plow because in that way a man is more likely to understand and appreciate the importance of proper plow adjustments. The more modern riding plows can be operated with fair success, even though not properly adjusted, while this is impossible with the walking plow. Laying Off : In starting to plow a field the area is frequently "laid off" in spaces or strips called "lands," each of which is to be completed separately. The city boy going to the farm will not be called upon to lay out a field for plowing, as this is a matter requiring considerable experience and will be done by the owner or manager. After the land is laid out, however, the boy should be able to follow the furrow and to plow the field without troubling the farmer with anything beyond a little initial instruction. To become a really good plowman will require not only extreme care but much practice, for good plowing is not easy. Adjustment of the Plow : Different types of plows have varying sorts of adjustments which the boy must learn on the implement itself. As the owner decides upon the depth, so will he probably adjust the plow for the new helper, and it is the boy's job to keep the adjustment as made; indeed, it is a good rule when a plow is once properly adjusted to "let it alone." Depth : The depth at which the walking plow will run is regulated by raising or lowering the hitch at the front end of the beam. The depth at which the plowing should be done will vary from four to eight or nine inches, depending upon the kind of soil, the crop to be planted, and the previous treatment of the field. In general, sod ground is plowed considerably deeper than stubble. Width : To increase the width of the furrow move the hitch at the end of the beam away from the plowed land, and to decrease it move the hitch toward the furrow. The maximum width of furrow which a plow will turn will depend upon the width of the plow bottom, and the plowman should never attempt a wider furrow, for the result will be only to "cut and cover." leaving a bad job to be followed by a poor spot in the crop. Balks : When plowing, if for any reason the plow should jump out of the furrow, do not continue, for that would leave an unplowed spot or "balk." It might be covered up by the soil from the next furrow and might not show when the job. was finished. That spot, however, would not be properly prepared to receive the seed and would not produce its proportion of the coming crop. In such a case, stop the team, pull the plow back, and start again. Turning a Corner : To turn a corner when plowing a field with a walking plow, stop the implement so that the point is just at the end of the furrow slice. Then bring the horses around through an angle of forty-five degrees, at the same time pulling the plow back and over into the position to cut the desired width of furrow. This method will turn all the soil with a minimum of labor required in handling the plow. Scouring : One of the most important things in proper plowing is that the plow bottom should scour ; that is, that the soil should not stick, but should roll clean from the surface, leaving a bright, smooth land polish. If the soil is of a type which does not scour well, then before going to the field clean all grease or rust from the surface of the bottom of the plow and polish it as bright as possible. If the trouble is encountered in the field, clean the surface frequently until the trouble is remedied, that is, until the plow begins to scour. A wooden paddle will be found very useful for this cleaning process.
When through using a plow, the surface of the moldboard should be coated with axle grease or with some other rust preventive. This will preserve it in proper condition for use the next time. The Larger Plows : In using a sulky, gang, or tractor plow, it is of particular importance that attention be given to the various lever adjustments. These could be explained at great length, but for practical purposes the city boy going to the farm should give close attention to the instructions given him by the farm manager and when in doubt he should ask for further information rather than go ahead with the possibility of being in error. Steady Plowing : Sometimes an ambitious team on the plow may walk faster than is desirable for good work and in that case it should be held in to a steady pace. Plowing is a long and tedious job which is accomplished not by sudden spurts nor by hurrying, but by steady, careful work so accomplished that every square foot of the field is well tilled and in condition to produce its part of the crop. Rapid plowing is undesirable because it throws the soil out of its normal position and tends to leave the field undulating instead of in continuous, uniform furrows. Special Precautions : Careless teamsters often leave the breast straps hanging while working a team on the plow, harrow, or other tongueless tool. When that is done the heavy iron snap strikes the knee every time the horse stops, often making an ugly sore. This is cruel heedlessness, and in all cases the breast strap should be snapped into the hame ring as if in actual use. LESSON 16 THE MOWER Mowing is a job that is almost certain to fall to the lot of the boy who volunteers for farm work. This is not a difficult task, but one that requires a good deal of care. Points Needing Especial Attention: 1. Drive carefully, so that the sickle bar cuts a full swath, but do not let the inside shoe run onto the uncut grass, thus leaving a strip that will not be cut. Do not let the horses step on the uncut grass. 2. In approaching a corner drive straight ahead until the sickle bar is entirely out of the uncut grass. Then turn the team carefully so as to start in squarely. Many men who operate a mower are careless in turning at the corners, leaving bunches of uncut grass which give the field a ragged appearance. Show interest in your work by doing a neat job. 3. Throw the mower out of gear every time you stop to clear or adjust the sickle. Failure to observe this precaution is responsible for many fingers cut off and some ankles wounded, for when the machine is '"in gear" a slight movement of one of the horses will move the sickle enough to make an ugly cut. Never shift the gear lever while the machine is in motion. 4. When working with the sickle always stand behind the sickle bar; never in front. This is a case of safety first. 5. When you stop for any purpose during the trip across the field, back the team a few inches before starting again. This will enable the sickle to get up motion before reaching the uncut grass. 6. The mower has many rapidly moving parts, and must be oiled frequently. Be sure that the oil ducts are open so that the oil can get down to the working parts where it is needed. Follow your employer's instructions carefully on this point. Feel of the pitman bearings occasionally, and if they seem to be getting hot, oil more frequently. 7. Keep the sickle sharp. MOWER ADJUSTMENTS The following suggestions will help to keep the mower in proper adjustment for best work. Never attempt, however, to make radical adjustments of the parts of a mower or other implement without your employer's consent. Alignment : When the mower is in operation the knife and pitman should work in line ; the machine is then said to be aligned. Due to strains, or to wear in the hinge between the cutter bar and yoke and in the joint between the yoke and main frame, the outer end of the cutter bar on old machines often drops back of alignment as shown by the string in Fig. 1. The power from the pitman must then be transferred to the knife through an angle, and this, causes friction on the inside shoe parts, with increased draft and greater wear.
A good method of testing for alignment is the string method illustrated in Fig. 1. The resistance on a cutter bar will
cause the outer end to drop back an inch or so when the mower moves forward at normal speed. Thus, when the
machine is standing idle the outer end of the bar should have a slight lead when tested with the cord. The usual
practice is to give the outer end of a five-foot cutter bar about an inch lead, and a six-foot bar, about one and
one-half inches lead.
Many mowers are now equipped with special aligning devices. The operator should inspect his machine carefully to
locate the aligning adjustment and then use it to secure lighter draft.
Centering : In order that the knife sections may have the greatest speed when they have the most work to do, they
should "center"; that is, at the end of the instroke and outstroke the center of each knife section should come to rest
at the center of its guard. If the knife does not center, as illustrated in Fig. 2, increased draft, side-draft, and poorer
work will result, because one edge of the section fails to play past the edge of the guard sufficiently to make a clean
cut, but pulls the grass off instead.
Non-centering is caused by carelessness in fitting a new pitman stick, by getting the knife rib too long when it is
welded, or by the operator attempting to align the machine by shortening the drag-bar. Proper centering can be
reestablished on most machines by moving the entire cutter bar to the left or to the right, as the case may demand.
In the case illustrated in Fig. 2, the cutter bar should be forced to the right, or the knives to the left. On most
machines this can be done by lengthening the drag-bar at the socket connection described above. Some mowers
carry other forms of centering devices, and operators should locate such features.
Side-Draft : Sharp scissors, properly adjusted, cut easily, but if one loosens the screw that holds the blades
together, no matter how sharp the blades, they will spread sufficiently to wedge material between them instead of
cutting it. This wedging, crushing action causes the scissors to work very much harder than when the blades are
held close together.
The cutter bar of a mower is nothing more or less than a series of shears. The ledger plate in each guard and the corresponding knife section are the blades in each pair of scissors, while the clip, shown in Fig. 3, takes the place of the screw to hold these two shearing plates in the proper relation to produce a cutting rather than a wedging and crushing action. But, due to wear, the knife sections begin to leave the ledger plates after the mower has been some time in use. Thus the proper shearing action of the cutting mechanism is destroyed ; the grass is drawn in and wedged between the cutting blades and, instead of being cut off easily, the stems are crushed and pulled off as the cutter bar moves to the front. Each of these uncut stems helps to pull back on' the cutter bar, causing increased draft. Side-draft may be caused, too, by one or more guards being bent up or down. When the mower leaves the factory, the guards and the ledger plates are exactly in line, and the operator who cares for light draft must keep them in that relation. Perhaps the best method of aligning is as follows. After the knife has been removed, place a straight piece of strap iron about 1/4 X 1-1/8 X 15 inches on the ledger plates and, using this piece as a straight edge, move it back and forth over the plates, noting which are high and which are low. Then drive a misplaced guard back into alignment by hitting it a sharp hammer blow where its stock is thick. The guards are malleable. If a new guard with new ledger plate has been supplied recently, it may set a little too high, In such case it is well to place a piece of tin between the guard and cutter bar where the two are bolted together. Another common cause of side-draft is excessive wear on the underside of the lips of the clips. The faces of the clips wear away rapidly because there is considerable pressure upon them by the knife sections, as the latter tend to spread from the ledger plates. As the wear on these parts increases, the knife sections tend to raise farther from the ledger plates, until finally the same conditions will exist at even guard as exists in scissors when the screw is loosened.
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