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1. Camp
Structure
a. Choosing a Camp Site
CAMPING MUST FILL THESE
REQUIREMENT WHEN POSSIBLE:
1) Wind sheltered
2) Offer wood for installation.
3) Offer wood for burning
4) Away from swamp, dampness.
5) Close to drinking water supply yet not too close bugs.
6) Seek Dry ground as much as possible.
7) High enough to AVOID mosquitoes using air draft.
8) Tent facing East or rising sun position
9) Winter: Sheltered from wind as much as possible.
10) Winter storm ALWAYS come from West & North thus to AVOID.
WHERE TO CAMP & WHERE NOT TO CAMP:
1) Hill-tops exposed to wind, move down and look for shelter on the Leeside.
2) Valley bottoms and deep hollows - could be damp and especially when the sky is clear, more liable to frost at night.
3) Hill-side terraces where the ground holds moisture.
4) Spurs which lead down to water, which are often routes to animals/watering places.
If you are on high exposed
ground go lower down to find a sheltered spot, but on low, wet ground
you will need to climb higher to find somewhere securely dry. Look for
somewhere sheltered from the wind, on rising ground that has no risk of
flooding and is safe from rock falls or avalanches. Hot air rises, cold
air sinks, so valley bottoms will often pockets of cold air and in cold
weather, be susceptible to frost and damp mist.
In areas that get plenty of
rainfall terraces across a slope will often be damper than the steeper
ground above and below them, for water collects there before flowing further
downward. Ideally you should be near water, with a plentiful supply
of wood near at hand. Pitching camp too close to water, however may lead you
to be troubled by insects and the sound of running water can hide other
noises which might indicate DANGER or the sound of search or rescue
parties. On river banks look for the high water mark.
In Mountain regions streams can become torrents in minutes, rising as much as 5m (17ft) in an
hour! Even on plains keep out of old watercourses, no matter how dry they
are. Heavy rain storms in nearby hills can easily send water rushing down
them in flash floods with PRACTICALLY NO WARNINGS. Choose ground that
is reasonably flat and free or rocks and MAKE SURE that you have
space to lay out signals and that you can be easily spotted by rescue
parties.
Check above your head for bee or hornet nests and for dead wood in trees that could come crashing
down in the next storm or high wind. Keep away from solitary trees which attract lightning, and in forest areas keep to the edges where you can
see what is going on around you. Don't camp across a game trail- you
don't want marauding animals as unwelcome guests or to find your bivouac
flattened by a herd of animals (elephants?) on their way to a water-hole or
bar, but stay near to any obvious human tracks.
FINDING A CAMP SITE:
Choosing a camp spot requires a bit of observation. More so if you're
off the beaten track than in a national park or forest, where locations are
usually restricted to fixed campsites. Even there, when on remote trails and
waterways, away from these fixed sites, the considerate camper picks a
previously established location wherever possible, in order to minimize
man's intrusion into the wilds. Not only does this practice preserve the
same unspoiled beauty that you find for those who follow and who in turn are
followed, in most cases it also assures you of one of the best spots
available. The campers of the past the woodsmen who unleashed their weapons
upon arriving to make tables, dingle cranes, kitchen racks, bough beds, and
sapling tent poles, all from native material seem in the camping world of
today very destructive indeed, but fools they weren't. They picked the best
spot to be found within any given area sheltered, close to water, and
usually with the grandest view around as well. The only problem is that the
natural advantages of these spots often lead to their becoming mini-slums.
Without trying to sound like a platoon leader assigning KP, let me suggest
that if you come to a campsite where the previous occupants apparently
reveled in leaving paper, cans & other garbage scattered all over the floor,
help clean it up. It only takes a couple of minutes, and it isn't asking
much in repayment for the free use of nature. Hopefully, if everyone does
the same, in a few years they'll be no need to continue the pro bono
cleanup.
DOWN BY THE RIVERSIDE:
One of the keys to a comfortable, nay even bearable campsite is water.
There are other things to be said for camping some distance from streams,
rivers, & even lakes. They do rise unexpectedly. Most of the time you can
spot the high-water mark by mud and other stains on nearby trees. But
there's no such thing as the ultimate flood record. For the same reason,
although that grassy sandbank with a cozy ring of little pines in the middle
of the river may seem the perfect place to pull the canoe in for the night
what could be better than one's own island? It could be mighty dangerous. A
fine place for lunch, but not for an overnight stay. Although the rise in
water will be small in most places, given the right conditions, water levels
have been known to rise five or ten feet over night. Also, keeping away from
the very edge of the water, and preferably up from it as well, lessens
discomfort from mist, dampness & often mosquitoes.
LAY OF THE LAND * WHERE TO CAMP BEST:
The 3 traditional requirements for a campsite used to be Water, Wood & a
flat area on which to lay out your sleeping bag or pitch your tent. Wood is
no longer a prerequisite, with the handy and convenient stoves on the
market. Water is still necessary. So is the relative flat stretch of ground.
Flat ground can be as difficult a thing to find as water, if not more so,
particularly in the mountains. There you may have to settle for a spot that
slopes. If you do, MAKE SURE you set up the tent or lay out the bags so that
you will be sleeping with your head up. Sleep with your feet higher than
your head, and you will wake up in the morning feeling you have a nasty
hangover. Sleeping sideways on a slope will have all the occupants of a tent
piled on top of each other on the downhill side before the night is halfway
through. If you are not in a tent, you don't know where you will wake up.
The only certain thing is that it will be far from where you fell asleep. So
why not pitch camp at the bottom of the hollow? Well, usually because that
is the wettest, coldest, foggiest spot around. In the case of heavy rain it
usually also means the morning will greet you with a small quagmire all
around. The top of knoll AVOIDS these problems. Its more positive advantage
is ventilation. A good breeze will keep the bugs to a minimum.
Speaking of BUGS *there you are in the middle
of a beautiful mountain meadow, fragrant summer blooms swaying in the
breeze. A perfect spot. No! For several reasons. Tall grass is where the
chiggers, ticks and other bugs like to camp. Also alpine meadows are
fragile. Setting up a tent there for a week may leave a visible scar for
years. For your own comfort and that of the meadows, pitch your tent at the
edge instead of the middle. It will be as fragrant and the view will be
better. At the edge of a meadow is also where you find bushes and trees to
provide wind shelter and shade for the heat of the day.
FOR BEST RESULTS, PITCH THE TENT OR LAY
OUT YOUR SLEEPING BAG ON THE EAST OR NORTH SIDE OF SHADE TREES.
This way you will be greeted by the warmth of a cheering sun in the
morning. Yet during the heat of the day you will be shaded from its harsh
rays. If prevailing winds are known, take them into consideration the same
way. Camp on the lee side of rocks and trees when it's cold & you need
protection. When it's warm, make camp on the windward side so the breezes
help cool your wilderness home. But check the trees out. NEVER camp beneath
a lone tree if there is any chance of thunderstorm. With its limbs reaching
higher in the sky than anything else around, it makes a natural lightning
rod. Dead trees are also a hazard - the heavy waterlogged birches in
particular. One moment they stand tall & serene in the sky. The next moment,
sometimes without even the lightest zephyr having whisked across the ground,
they lie uprooted and prone. Should your tent have been pitched beneath,
well... The same holds true, if to a lesser degree, for dead branches. Don't
camp beneath them. Chances of a dead branch killing you in its fall are very
slim indeed. But an injury is far from out of the question, and the least it
will do is ruin your tent.
MORE CAUTION:
When pitching your tent above the timber line in Mountainous regions,
look up before you set up. Landslides are not a common occurrence
statistically. But why become a statistic? Slopes of loose rock, slabs,
round boulders, or what looks like a frozen stream of smooth rocks down a
gully may decide to move during a heavy rain or in the alternate freezing
and thawing of the cold of night and warm of day. Give all of them a wide
berth.
WHERE NOT TO CAMP:
Common sense is the principal determinant to be close to drinking water
and firewood nearby at hand and to pick a spot as conspicuous as possible
to make signal if in case of emergency. We will AVOID spot that
may be inundated by a suddenly rising stream, particularly not if we are
aware of the disastrous results in some areas of storms not even visibly
locally. Warning tokens to be considered often include scars and debris left
by previous high water. So AVOID dry river beds which can be
inundated fast. Lush growth may be not only rough and soggy underfoot but it
may presage troublesome insects. Also AVOID places where there may be
cave-ins, avalanches, or perils from tumbling rocks. If there are dangers of
electrical storms REMEMBER that solitary trees have a tendency to
attract lightning. Particularly to be shunned will be jeopardy from falling
timber. Such trees such as cottonwoods and poplars are particular offenders
when it comes to unexpectedly tumbling limbs. The fast growing coastal pines
of California are extremely brittle & therefore, threats in every
sort of weather. Whenever there is any question, we'll bivouac among small
growth or in the open. That is where we will make any winter camps in
treeless northern regions, well away from lees where drifting snow can be an
insidious hazard.
WARNING:
But check the trees out. Never camp beneath a lone tree if there
is any chance of thunderstorm. With its limbs reaching higher in the sky
than anything else around it makes a natural lightning rod, dear Mose! (Deer
Moose?) Dead tree are also a hazard, the heavy waterlogged birches in
particular. One moment they stall tall & serene in the sky. The next moment,
sometimes without even the lightest zephyr having whisked across the ground,
they lie uprooted and prone. Should your tent have been pitched beneath,
well... Tough luck Charley Brown! The same hold true, if to a lesser degree,
for dead branches. Don't camp beneath them. Chances of a dead
branches killing you in its fall are very slim indeed. But an injury is far
from out of the questions, and the least it will do is ruin your tent.
MOUNTAIN CAMPING:
When pitching your tent above the timber line in mountainous regions,
look up before you set up. Landslide are not a common occurrence
statistically But why become a statistic Slopes of loose rock, slabs, round
boulders, or what looks like a frozen stream of smooth rocks down a gully
may decide to move during a heavy rain or in the alternate freezing and
thawing of the cold of night and warm of day. Give all of them a wide berth.
Do pick a spot that is sheltered as much as possible from the wind. A
firm outcropping of rock or large, well entrenched boulders are probably the
best shelters you will find to pitch tent behind. But take advantage
of whatever you can. A determined mountain gale may hit a hundred & fifty to
200 miles/hour. A good campsite is not that difficult to find, I hasten to
add before proceeding with one more small caution: know what poison ivy &
poison oak look like.
BEST TENT LOCATION:
Erected towards the South will AVOID the cold wind of the North
as well as the rain from the East.
SHELTER FROM COLD:
In an emergency look for natural shelter in your immediate area; a
shallow cave, a fallen tree, boulders. DON'T WAIT till darkness fall.
Make or find a shelter while there is light. You MUST get out of the
rain, wind, snow before Hypothermia sets in. Make more permanent shelter when
permitted. If nothing better punch a head-hole in plastic bag (In your
S/Kit). Put it on & huddle out of wind, back against boulder, tree trunk
etc. Move legs & arms frequently.
SHELTER LOCATION:
If choice, locate shelter out of wind on high ground, not in hollow
where chilling fog will settle. Stay near forest if possible. Trees are good
wind breaker. Insulate floor of shelter as deeply as you can with brush,
leaves, grass- anything to keep you of the cold ground. What is
underneath is more important than what's over you. Dig tunnel into snow
if no other shelter is available. Use stick to keep air vent open. In deep
snow, base of trees can provide shelter. Use your imagination, improvise but
keep construction shelter simple, Don't waist valuable energy!
BEST
CAMPING SPOT:
For best results, pitch the tent or lay out your sleeping bag on
the East or North side of shade trees. This way you will be greeted by the
warmth of a cheering sun in the morning. Yet during the heat of the day you
will be shaded from its harsh rays. If prevailing winds are known, take them
into consideration the same way.
WHERE
TO CAMP BEST:
The 3 traditional requirements for a campsite used to be Water,
Wood & a flat area on which to lay out your sleeping bag or pitch your tent.
Wood is no longer a prerequisite, with the handy and convenient stoves on
the market. Water is still necessary. So is the relative flat stretch of
ground. Flat ground can be as difficult a thing to find as water, if not
more so, particularly in the mountains. There you may have to settle for a
spot that slopes. If you do, MAKE SURE you set up the tent or lay out
the bags so that you will be sleeping with your head up. Sleep with your
feet higher than your head, and you will wake up in the morning feeling you
have a nasty hangover. Sleeping sideways on a slope will have all the
occupants of a tent piled on top of each other on the downhill side before
the night is halfway through. If you are not in a tent, you don't know where
you will wake up. The only certain thing is that it will be far from where
you fell asleep. So why not pitch camp at the bottom of the hollow? Well,
usually because that is the wettest, coldest, foggiest spot around. In the
case of heavy rain it usually also means the morning will greet you with a
small quagmire all around. The top of knoll avoids these problems. Its more
positive advantage is ventilation. A good breeze will keep the bugs to a
minimum.
BUGS CORNER:BZZZZZ!
Speaking of bugs. There you are in the middle of a beautiful mountain
meadow, fragrant summer blooms swaying in the breeze. A perfect spot. No!
For several reasons. Tall grass is there the chiggers, ticks and other bugs
like to camp too. Also alpine meadows are fragile. Setting up a tent there
for a week may leave a visible scar for years For your own comfort and that
of the meadows, pitch your tent at the edge instead of the middle. It will
be as fragrant and the view will be better. At the edge of a meadow is also
where you find bushes and trees to provide wind shelter & shade for the heat
of the day.
DO PICK A SPOT THAT IS SHELTERED AS MUCH
AS POSSIBLE FROM THE WIND:
A firm outcropping of rock or large, well entrenched boulders are
probably the best shelters you will find to pitch tent behind. But take
advantage of whatever you can. A determined mountain gale may hit a hundred
and fifty to 200 miles an hour. A good campsite is not that difficult to
find, I hasten to add before proceeding with one more small caution: know
what
Poison Ivy &
Poison Oak look like. Oh yeah -
poison sumac is nasty, too.
Click here for poison ivy, poison oak pictures as well as many imposters
(look-alikes) and see what people are finding in their backyards.
Back to Top
1. Camp Structure
b. Leadership &
Responsibilities
SETTING UP THE EASY WAY:
To really enjoy camping, the trick is to make it as little work as
possible. In pitching and breaking camp, each person doing specific tasks is
the KEY to a wonderful time!
SETTING UP THE EASY WAY:
To really enjoy camping, the trick is to make it as little work as
possible. In pitching and breaking camp, each person doing specific task is
the KEY TO SUCCESS. When you find a campsite, you divvy up the jobs and go
to it. One pitches the tent while the other gets the fire going or in
reverse depending who's in the mood for what. Certain tasks are primarily in
one or the other's domain. If you have not camped before, to make your fist
night on the trail the pleasure it should be instead of a trial & error of a
guessing game. Go through the whole routine of setting & breaking camp in
your backyard before you leave. If you are gearing up for extended camping,
take a couple of overnight break-in trips. They will more than pay for
themselves by instilling a rhythmic efficiency in your camping party. Don't
leave out the kids. Making them part of the team is worth more than having a
free rein. It also helps wear them out. Of course it may not ALWAYS save
time. Genevieve started helping to pitch the tent when she was 14 months
old. Getting the tent up took 3 times as long, but she was proud as could
be. Camping with 5 years old and up, take a night off occasionally and let
them do all the work while you sit back and relax. (MMM!) It is amazing how
much a young child can handle in the wilds and what a sense of
accomplishment it gives him. By the way one of your practice runs should
include a crack at setting up camp in the dark with a minimum amount of
light. That is one flashlight or less. Once you have done it a couple of
times setting up camp at night becomes automatic. REMEMBER that no matter
how well planned a camping trip is, at one time or another you are going to
reach your campsite after sunset.
ORGANIZING THE SURVIVAL CAMP:
In many survival situations there will already be someone in a position of
responsibility who will head the organization of the camp and lead the
development of survival plans. Experience MUST BE pooled & immediate steps
taken to discover what skills individuals can contribute. A roster is
ESSENTIAL for such daily chores as collecting firewood & water, foraging,
cooking, latrine digging and maintenance tasks, and for hunting and
trapping.
If no established command structure exists
among a group of survivors, an organized committee should be established and
individuals nominated & elected with particular responsibilities perhaps on
a rational basis if it is a large group and rescue does not come quickly. In
any group of survivors there may be all kinds of people of different ages
and experience. People will have varied skills and enjoy doing different
tasks. However, everyone who is fit and able should take their turn at the
unpleasant tasks, unless their skills are so much in demand that it would be
a waste of their abilities. Keeping busy eliminates boredom and keeps up
morale.
Anyone who is sick or injured gets the
lightest jobs and is best employed around camp until they have recovered.
There should ALWAYS be someone in camp, and they should be able enough to
operate the rescue signals should a search aircraft appear. If you have
sufficient numbers do NOT venture from the camp in less than pairs.
Music can be a great morale booster. If no
instruments were carried or survived, simple ones such as percussion or
pan-pipes can be easily improvised, and everyone can sing after a fashion.
Sing-songs, dancing, charades, quizzes and story-telling and even praying
all have their place and you may have talents that can create more elaborate
entertainment. You can make pieces for board games such as draughts and
chess, using stones for counters or carving simple playing pieces.
Even the lone survivor requires discipline
and order. A regular routine will help morale and exactly the same care MUST
BE taken to ensure that the camp is kept in good order.
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1. Camp Structure
c. Layout & Set-up
CAMP LAYOUT:
Select sites for all camp activities so that they do not interfere with
each other or pollute the living and cooking areas. If you are camped by a
river or stream, fix specific sections for activities & keep to them.
Latrines should be dug downhill and downstream from the camp so that there
is NO possible risk of polluting either.
ACTIVITY AREAS:
Establish a water point from which drinking water will be collected and
ensure that no one wash, cleans pots, scrubs clothes or otherwise uses the
stream upstream of this point. Choose a downstream (from camp) wash point
for personal ablutions and clothes washing and farther downstream of that
select a place to be used for cleaning cooking utensils. Never urinate or
defecate in or near your water supply.
SANITATION:
If you are in an established campground with latrines, use them. If as
is more likely, there are none around, head for the woods. Go a reasonable
distance from camp & dig, scratch or kick a hole in one of the less
accessible spots where you would not normally be walking. The hole need not,
in fact should not be deep. Most bacterial action occurs in the top 6 inches
of the soil. So although a shovel might be handy it is not really necessary.
Cover everything well and stomp it down. If you are squeamish about stomping
it down you have not covered it well enough. (OOPSS SHIITTT!) For a party of
several people on an extended stay, a longish trench again only 6 to 8
inches deep, is usually gauged and agreed upon spot. As it is used, it is
covered with dirt bit by bit. Leave toilet paper hung on a branch, an empty
coffee can over it to keep it dry and conveniently nearby.
1-2-3- ANCHOR:
A very stout stake is driven into the ground at an angle of about 45
degree and to the foot of this the main rope to be anchored is fastened. To
the head of this stake 2 ropes are secured and these are fastened to the
foot of 2 stakes to the rear. The heads of these stakes are in turn tied
back to the foot of 3 other stakes. This anchor will hold secure under
almost all conditions.
ANCHORING A PEG IN SAND or SNOW:
The only way to anchor a rope into soft sand is to attach it to a peg
and bury the peg in the sand. Scrape a trench in the sand to a depth of
between 12 to 18 inches deeper if high winds or very stormy weather are
expected. Pass the rope round the center of the peg scratch a channel for it
at right angles to the peg trench. Fill in the trench and rope channel and
fasten the free end of the rope to the standing end with a stopper hitch*
and pull taut. The buried peg should hold a tent rope in sand under all
normal weather conditions. Same applies in snow.
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2. Field
Hygiene
a. Importance of Hygiene
CAMP HYGIENE:
Keeping healthy is an important factor for survival, so strict hygiene
should be practiced, not only personally but in the planning and running of
a camp. Rubbish and latrines MUST BE kept away from the camp to reduce the
threat from flies. Food scraps and other rubbish should be burned in the
fire if possible. Since most of the common diseases in a survival situation
are water-born, pollution of drinking water MUST BE RIGOROUSLY AVOIDED.
Back to Top
2. Field Hygiene
b. Food Preparation
& Storage
KEEPING THE FOOD FOR YOURSELF:
Although they may not eat everything you take along, animals will make a
beeline for the camp kitchen at night. In Bear country it's ALWAYS a good
idea to hang your comestibles well out of reach. Put them all together in a
waterproof duffel or stuff sack, attach a line to the bag, and throw the
line over a large tree branch. It should hang out as far from the trunk as
its weight will permit. I used to pull our gear up seven or eight feet in
bear country. Now I make it twelve if I can. This past summer a grizzly that
MUST have been trying out for the Olympic basketball team tore the bottom
out of our pantry even though it was almost 9 feet off the ground. NEVER
NEVER under any circumstances keep food in your tent when in Bear country.
Even in regions where bears have definitely been driven to extinction, it's
still a good policy to hang your food away from the tent.
CAMP DISCIPLINE:
Do not prepare game in camp: bleed, gut and skin on the trap line or
kill site. This attracts game to the traps where you want them, not into
your camp. Keep food covered and off the ground. If kept in trees MAKE SURE
it is proof from tree-dwelling animals. Replace lids on water bottles and
containers IMMEDIATELY after using them. Stow spare clothing and equipment
in your shelter. Do not leave it lying where it can get wet or burned. Have
a place for everything & keep things tidy. A tree for mess tins & cooking
utensils-hook them on twigs and branches, a place for mugs and spoons & keep
everything off the ground. Fix a box as cupboard on a tree trunk.
NEVER LEAVE THE CAMPFIRE
UNATTENDED
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2. Field Hygiene
c. Keeping the Camp Clean
GARBAGE:
There's no garbage pickup in the real wilderness. If you pack it in,
pack it out pack it all out. Food scraps, if there are any, are the only
thing that can be safely left behind. But don't just scrape them out at the
edge of your campsite. Carry them back into the brush and scatter them
around.
INCINERATOR:
If there is too much waste for the camp fire to burn, make a separate
fire in the latrine area. If a large can is available use it as an
incinerator. Bury any unburned refuse in a garbage pit.
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2. Field Hygiene
d. Field Expedient
Soap Making
FIELD EXPEDIENT SOAP MAKING:
Two ingredients-an oil and alkali- are needed to make soap. The oil can
be animal fat (including fish) or vegetable but not mineral. The alkali can
be produced by burning wood or seaweed to produce ash. Wash ash with water.
Strain and boil with the oil. Simmer until excess liquid are evaporated and
allow to cool. This soap will clean the skin but it is not antiseptic.
Adding horseradish root or pine resin to the brew will make it antiseptic.
Experimentation will be necessary to get the balance in the mixture right.
Start with more oil than alkali because too much alkali will dry the skin,
leaving it sore.
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3. Field
Sanitation – Wash, Clean & Latrine
a.
Locating & Setting Up Wash Stations
WASH STATIONS:
Select sites for all camp activities so that they do not interfere with
each other or pollute the living and cooking areas. If you are camped by a
river or stream, fix specific sections for activities & keep to them.
Establish a water point from which drinking water will be collected and
ensure that no one wash, cleans pots, scrubs clothes or otherwise uses the
stream upstream of this point. Choose a downstream (from camp) wash point
for personal ablutions and clothes washing and farther downstream of that
select a place to be used for cleaning cooking utensils. Never urinate
or defecate in or near your water supply.
SOAP:
Washing with soap removes natural oils, leaving the skin less waterproof
and more prone to attack by germs. In survival circumstances it is a mistake
to wash with soap too often. However, soap is the most widely
used antiseptic, better than many others, such as iodine, which destroy body
tissue as well as germs. It is ideal for scrubbing hands before
administering first-aid for wounds. Save supplies for this.
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3. Field Sanitation – Wash, Clean &
Latrine
b. Siting &
Preparing Latrines
LATRINES AND RUBBISH DISPOSAL:
Latrines and rubbish disposal should be well away from the camp and
preferably downwind. Rubbish, after checking that it really has no USEFUL
value, should be burned, and what cannot be burned should be buried. The
latrine point should not be so far away that is inconvenient and people are
tempted to go elsewhere. If necessary cut a track to it to make access
easier.
DEEP TRENCH LATRINE:
Dig a trench about 1.25m (4ft) deep and 45cm (18in) wide. Build up the
sides with logs or rocks and earth to make a comfortable sitting height,
sealing the gaps between them. Lay logs across to leave only a hole for use
or (several if you are a large group and making a communal latrine). Empty
wood ash on the logs to make a seal. It will also deter flies. Make a lid of
smaller wood to cover the opening or use a large flat rock or a large leaf
weighted down with stones.
ALWAYS REMEMBER to replace it.
URINAL:
Dig a pit about 60cm (2ft) deep. Three-quarters fill it with a large
stone and then top up with earth, with a cone made from bark set into it as
a funnel. Site it close enough to the camp to ensure that people bother to
use it.
Back to Top
3. Field Sanitation – Wash, Clean &
Latrine
c. Latrine Maintenance
It is important that proper latrines be
established, even for the lone survivor. With a group separate latrines for
the sexes may make a mixed group feel more comfortable and as much privacy
as possible should be provided. Even if you have it, do not use disinfectant
in a latrine. Lime or disinfectant would kill the USEFUL bacteria that break
down and then it will start smelling! After defecating cover the feces with
earth. Add small amounts of water that will promote the bacterial breakdown.
Make a latrine cover to keep out flies and REMEMBER ALWAYS to replace it, or
flies that have walked all over feces may walk all over your food, & start a
cycle of infection. If, after a time, a latrine starts to smell, dig a new
one. Fill in the old latrine. Build a new seat and burn old timbers &
covers.
Back to Top
4. Shelter
a. Location & Set-up
PITCHING THE TENT:
Clear the spot for your tent of any sharp rocks, twigs or other debris.
If a live root pokes somewhere, don't try to dig it out. The more you dig,
the thicker it ALWAYS seem to get and the harder it is to break. Sawing in a
hole is not only difficult, but you usually damage the blade as well. You
won't injure the tree much by pruning a root, but you will certainly wear
yourself out. Better to move your future tent location a bit. If that is not
possible, set the tent up so that the root is where your sleeping bag won't
be & pad it on the inside if you are likely to crawl over it. Next if you
have a self supporting tent of the Draw-Tite variety, all you do is roll it
out, put the pole sections together, and lift the tent into place on them.
If you have a peg and pole tent, you start the same way. Roll out the tent.
Stake down the 4 corners, making the floor snug and squaring the corners.
Position the poles and stakes out the guy lines, leaving enough slack so you
can make the fine adjustments with the line tighteners later. Next stake out
the side pull-outs. Once the lines are all out, adjust them so the tent is
taut and wrinkles free. The KEY is balanced tension, not just tension.
Although the lines should be taut excessive tension deforms the tent adding
unnecessary strain If you are using a rain fly, lay it over the tent poles.
Stake it out, unless it's the exterior frame supported variety, so it does
not touch the tent itself anywhere or it will cause capillary leaks. You can
tie the end lines of your fly to your tent stakes. But on windy days it is
an added safety factor to use separate stakes for the fly. By the time
you're done with this your partner should have dinner well under way. Lay
out the sleeping bags so they can maximize their loft before you crawl in.
Then hit for chow.
Back to Top
4. Shelter
b. Type &
Construction
CHECKING OUT A TENT:
The thread used to stitch a tent together should match the material
nylon thread with nylon, cotton thread with cotton. Cotton is really the
best of all threads because it swells when wet, sealing the stitch holes.
However, when it is used on nylon tents, owners tend to treat the whole tent
as if it was synthetic and do not take the time to let it dry out as well as
if it was a cotton tent. This induces premature rot in the cotton thread
materially lessening the seam life of the tent. Seams preferably should be
lap felled & double stitched for maximum strength, particularly with
lightweight fabrics. Horizontal seams should lie so that the folded over
part drips towards the ground on the outside. Otherwise the seam will tend
to hold water like a rain gutter. The stitching should be evenly spaces and
neat. REMEMBER neatness does count. Nylon, even ripstop, is susceptible to
unraveling. All nylon edges should be heat-sealed. Most tent makers hot cut
their fabrics, effectively binding off the edge as they snip, all in the
same process. Peaks, corners, pole sleeves and particularly pullouts and
grommets should be reinforced. Any part of the tent to which a line is going
to be tied should be strengthened with a patch to spread the stress. Set the
tent up and check all stress points while it's raised. That's the way you'll
be using it. Zippers are best made of nylon. The coil variety being the most
desirable of all, with nylon teeth in second place. Following those are the
old brass zippers. Aluminum teeth come in a far distant forth. Check out
not only the quality of zippers, but their arrangement as well- ALWAYS with
these questions in mind: How convenient would this particular setup be for
me & my gang when we are inside? Is the door easy to work? Can the window be
closed if the gear is at the back under it? Etc.
HOW BIG A TENT?:
Rarely should you consider anything bigger than the two-man tents.
You're not trying to take a seven room house to the woods when you go
camping. You're looking for compactness, easy portability, warmth, and
coziness in cold weather. Even more rare are the circumstances where you'll
need anything bigger than a three-man tent. So rare, indeed, I can't think
of any. Yes, but what about the kids?
Kids go for tents like bees in basswood.
Think back to your own childhood, when you were forever busy crawling into
little houses or making a brand new one by hanging a blanket over the table
or a set of chairs. Kids like tents so much they'll even camp out in the
backyard at home. How young can you start a child out in his or her own
tent? Reasons of parental convenience, such as responding to calls for milk
or a less soggy diaper in the middle of the night, may dictate three in a
tent. But our daughter Genevieve, presented with the opportunity of sacking
out in one by herself when fourteen months old, seemed to view it as a cozy
little nursery, apparently with much more interesting walls, doors, and
furnishings than the one at home. Needless to say, when camping with young
children, separate tents should be within easy reach & hearing distance of
each other – no matter how tempted you may be to pitch yours at the other
end of the lake.
HOME IS A LAKE:
The most elementary tent is a tarp. This is simply a waterproof square
of material usually somewhere between 9X9 feet and 14X14 feet in size. It
can be slung between 2 trees etc. The new types are made of nylon which make
them very light and fitting for your pack. They MUST be coated with
polyurethane to repel water. If you use a tarp you'll need also a ground
cloth (simply a sheet of plastic) or use your poncho. You'll also need a
strong nylon line about 15 feet or more. A second item, not indispensable,
but very handy, particularly if your tarp lacks sufficient ties and
grommets, is the tarp garter, or Visklamp. It looks like a combination
jacks' ball and shower curtain ring and works on the same principle a garter
does. Ask your wife! You put the ring flat against the tarp wherever you
wish to attach a line, then you push the tarp through the large end of the
ring with the ball and slide the whole thing up to the slim end. Then you
just tie your line onto the large ring, lead it to the rigger point you've
picked out, and your set.
THE TUBE:
At last a disposable tent, weighing just over a pound, good for two
weeks in the wilds, and costing no more than a pizza pie back home. It will
probably not be with us long, however. Like so many other good things, it is
too easy to abuse. The usual tube tent is nine to nine and a half foot long,
with an eight foot circumference for the one-man model, a 12 foot
circumference for the two-man version. Get one made of 4 mill or thicker
plastic. Get an opaque-colored one rather than clear. You won't walk into it
at night as readily. The tint will also reflect solar radiation, keeping the
inside cooler in warmer weather.
There are two things to REMEMBER besides
NEVER leaving your torn tent behind in the wilds. NEVER close off the ends
of the tube. Plastic cannot breathe. If it is sealed off, neither can you.
Secondly, during heavy rain, water will tend to splatter in at the base. To
minimize the effects of this, stand your rucksack up at one end about ten
inches inside the edge, place a log or similar object the same distance from
the other end, then lift the plastic up like a doorsill against them. A
couple of doubled-over pieces of cloth adhesive tape, or even Scotch tape,
which clings like a demon to polyethylene, attached as loops to the ends of
the tent before you set out on your trip, will permit you to anchor the sill
easily after you've climbed into the tent.
A more permanent version of the tube tent is
the Trail-wise fabric model made by Sky Hut. It's made of urethane-coated
nylon & has the added benefit of a stronger floor. Tapered towards the rear,
it has hooded eaves at both ends, making it more of a tent than a tube.
Still, if it's your first time out and you're not planning to rough it, you
should probably consider something more substantial than even a modified
tube tent.
A TUB FOR A FLOOR:
The floor of a real tent should be of the tub, or wraparound, variety
and preferably seamless to eliminate the possibility of ground leaks. A tub
floor comes up and around to form the lower six to twelve inches of the tent
sides. This waterproof sill prevents seepage if your gears or sleeping bags
happen to touch the lower walls. It also keeps raindrops splattering off the
ground from saturating the tent itself, which is not and should not be
waterproof. A waterproof tent & there are some being made will raise a small
rainstorm inside the tent while you sleep. Moisture from your breath and
body rises to the roof, can't go through, condenses, and drops back over
your sleeping body, turning your abode into a miniature cloud chamber. The
moisture involved is not just a few drops, incidentally, but up to a full
quart per person per day.
A RAIN FLY FOR THE ROOF:
But if a tent isn't waterproof how is it going to keep you dry? Simple.
You cover the tent with a second roof, one that is waterproof and
appropriately named a rain fly. This is suspended anywhere from three to six
inches above your tent. Water bounces off this top layer, while inside
moisture passes through the tent itself into the space between and then out
at the sides. The double layer also keeps a tent considerably cooler during
the day and warmer at night.
FOREST TENT:
There are several one man tents available. They are rarely used, since
even most loners will lug the minimal extra weight of the 2 men tent model
just to have the additional space. There are many types but there is one
tent that is close to perfection. It's the Draw Tite developed by Robert
Blanchard. Working with lightweight heat treated aircraft aluminum tubing he
designed a self tensioned tent frame from which the tent itself was tightly
suspended by means of hooks and shock cords. The exterior frame literally
pulls the tent out in all directions, eliminating sagging & flapping
completely. In addition to ALWAYS giving you a smooth surface, it minimizes
wear, since stress is evenly distributed. And it provides & entranceway &
interior entirely free of clutter. For years we used a 2 men Eureka Draw
Tite. The modern camper may cringe at 13 pounds which is what a two-man tent
weighs. But for any other form of camping it's unbeatable. The same exterior
frame that keeps the tent walls free of ropes and stakes also permits you to
set up the tent on sand or solid rock where other tents are difficult, if
not impossible to erect. And pitching a Draw Tite is simplicity itself.
Identical aluminum sections slip together to make the frame from which the
tent is suspended. There are no lines to set or adjust. The whole thing can
literally be done blindfolded. This tent again proves its worth in storms
because of its being so stable & ventilation is excellent. The only draw
back is the metal zippers which should be switched to self-repairing
snag-proof nylon ones. Now there is also a nylon model which will save on
weight.
WHAT MAKES AN ALPINE TENT:
True mountain tent, designed not only for windy high altitude but
snowstorms as well, have several features not usually found in forest tents.
Yet they add much weight and expenses as well. There are 5 ESSENTIAL
modifications that distinguish the alpine tent from others: cook hole,
exhaust vent, frost liner, tunnel entrance & snow frock valance. There are
several good ones: Among the best: Gerry's Himalayan, Sierra Design's
Glacier and North Face's St. Elias; which is the lightest one of the lot.
THE COOK HOLE AND EXHAUST VENT:
A zippered opening in the tent floor, set well away from the wall for
fire safety & convenience, permits access to the ground below an alpine
tent. If you MUST cook in the tent this is where you will set up your store,
it will also be your garbage pit. "Cook-King" in your tent is a practice not
recommended except in really extenuating circumstances, better to munch on
cold gorp. Any extensive inside cooking will cause moisture condensation in
the best of tents. To minimize it, alpine tents have a small hood closable
tunnel vent half a foot or more in diameter or near the cook hole to permit
an up-draught exhaust of the moisture laden air.
THE FROST LINER:
In weather below 20 F. frost lining becomes an ESSENTIAL part of a tent.
The removable frost liner is cut from light cotton fabric and attached as an
inner wall. In some cases nylon is used, although lighter it is far inferior
for this purpose since it holds comparatively little moisture. Ice crystal
forming from tent moisture condenses on the surface of the liner during the
more extreme temperature conditions rather than falling on your sleeping bag
especially at night. At a convenient moment you take down the frost liner
and shake it off outside the tent. If you don't get a chance to do this
before the tent warms up, the ice crystals will melt. But the frost liner
will then absorb the moisture rather than letting it drip down your back.
TUNNEL ENTRANCE:
It is another ESSENTIAL in the Winter camping conditions the alpine tent
is designed to meet. Zippers are prone to freezing, jamming or breaking in
extreme cold weather rendering the usual tent flaps worthless. Also a flat
vertical entranceway is more readily blocked by snow than a tunnel. With the
tunnel extended it's not difficult at all to enter a tent unaccompanied by
blowing snow even in a determined blizzard. As a rule, a tent tunnel
entrance is roughly 3 feet in diameter with a 3 to 4 foot sleeve that can be
pulled out and suspended to a guy line or attached to the tunnel entrance of
a second tent to make a cozy set of twins during long heavy rains or severe
storms. It certainly makes for easy tent keeping.
THE SNOW FROCK VALANCE:
A last modification found is the exterior snow frock valance or flaps.
Pieces of coated fabric of some material as the floor extended out from the
base of the tent to life flat on the ground. Usually about a foot wide the
flaps can be covered with a thick layer of snow & then stomped down
thoroughly to keep the wind from slipping under the tent floor. Not only do
they add warmth, but in case of a severe gale they prevent your tent from
breaking its mooring and drifting off to no-man's land.
MAYBE A VESTIBULE:
An additional plus you may want to look for in alpine tent is a
vestibule or two. One or both ends of the tent, instead of being made flat
are curved out to give you an extra cooking and maneuvering room when you're
tent-bound. AVOID tents with floored vestibules unless they have skills to
keep the dirt from being tracked into the main part of the tent. If a sill
is provided, the bare ground vestibule makes an excellent cook hole.
TENT ACCESSORIES:
The whisk broom is not a fetish. What makes it so IMPORTANT is the
nature of modern fabrics and the almost universal acceptance of floored
tents. Ripstop nylon does not tear readily. But the shell of a tent is
sensitive to small punctures Pine sap turns into cotton candy. It doesn't
accept water repellents readily, but it greets dirt with open arms. And
rolling up pine needles, burrs, and sand in your tent when breaking camp
will reduce the life of the tent by half.
MENDING A TENT:
Speaking of water, any tent can and may develop a small seam leak,
particularly along the edge of the floor and in corners. A little squeeze
bottle of Neoprene sealer complete with pointed nozzle should be kept in
your tent-bag to remedy the situation quickly & painlessly. Make a mental
note of any spot that leaks when it leaks. Otherwise you may not find it
till the next rain. Seal it before you leave the tent for the day, first
making certain all possible vents are open. Sealer sure doesn't smell like
pine boughs, and it can give you a nasty headache as well. But after two or
three hours the smell will be gone along with your leak. Besides sealer, a
small repair kit put together with your particular tent in mind is handy,
indeed ALMOST ESSENTIAL. Canvas tents will rip on occasion. The new nylon
tents are very susceptible to fire damage. They won't burn. They simply
melt.
ZIP ZIP ZIP ZIP:
Metal zippers are definitely out for either sleeping bag or tent; they
jam, freeze, and break too easily. Nylon toothed zippers are good,
particularly if the teeth are large. I've got one last thought on zippers.
The longer, the better.
Back to Top
4. Shelter
c. Field Expedient
SHELTER BASIC ESSENTIAL:
TO BUILT A SHELTER TAKES A LITTLE TRAINING BUT ONE THING THAT IS ABSOLUTELY
ESSENTIAL IS A WATERPROOFED GROUND SHEET. IF YOU HAVE THAT THEN YOU ARE SAFE
& WILL MAKE GOOD SHELTER. The type of shelter you build will depend
upon: the materials available, the tools available, what you are sheltering
from wind, cold, snow, rain, insects, etc. How long do you intend to remain
at the location? Snow caves and natural holes are ideal if you are on the
move and do not need a permanent structure. Size will depend upon the number
in the party! (Having fun yet?). Take your time over building a complex
structure and rest often. Over-exertion which produces sweating MUST be
AVOIDED.
THE EASIEST WAY TO
CONSTRUCT A SHELTER IS:
To fix solidly into the ground 2 forked sticks and to put across a pole
as a ceiling and then you lean against it other poles or bunch of branches
and cover the roof with grass etc.
ANOTHER EASY WAY EVEN
FASTER IS:
To take only one pole and to lean it against a tree then tie it then
used pine branches or leaves branches to make the sidings. In a country like
South Africa where one does not have poles at his disposal, one makes
a hay wall or using brushes in an half circle so as to protect oneself from
the cold wind and lights a fire in the open section. If the sun makes your
shelter too hot add another layer of grass or leaves. The thicker the
roof the cooler the shelter. If it is too cold then thicken the bottom
parts of the walls or built a small wall about one foot high around the
walls of the shelter. Don't forget to dig a ditch around the shelter
so that the rain does not wash you off or enters your shelter.
TYPES OF SHELTER:
It will depend upon local conditions and the material available. Also on
how long you expect to need it. For immediate protection from the elements,
rig up a makeshift shelter while you construct something better and more
permanent. If you decide to stay put and wait for rescue, a more long term
shelter can be build and improved on as time and energy permit. For those
walking to safety, on the other hand, temporary shelters can be built at
each stopping point. They can even be carried with you if they are
sufficiently light and there is a significant risk that materials may not be
available at the next campsite. A more permanent shelter will certainly be
worthwhile for the sick and injured, who MUST rest up in order to
regain their strength or where it IS NECESSARY to wait for the
weather to clear before attempting a journey. Use the time to stockpile
equipment and provisions.
HASTY SHELTERS:
If no materials are available for constructing a shelter make use of any
cover and protection that is available: Cliff overhangs, gradients and so
forth, which will help shield you from wind or rain. Incorporate natural
windbreaks in quickly constructed shelters. In completely open plains, sit
with your back to the wind and pile any equipment behind you as a windbreak.
BOUGH SHELTER:
Make use of branches that sweep down to the ground or boughs that have
partly broken from the tree to give basic protection from the wind, but MAKE
SURE that they are not so broken that they could come down on your
head! Weave in other twigs to make the cover more dense. Conifers are more
suited to this technique than broad leaved trees as they require less
weaving in to keep out the rain. Make similar shelter by lashing a
broken-off bough to the base of another branch where it forks from the trunk
(A).
ROOT SHELTER:
The spreading roots and trapped earth at the base of a fallen tree make
a good wind and storm barrier, if they are at the right angle to the wind.
Filling in the sides between the extended roots will usually make the
shelter much more effective and provide a good support for building a more
elaborate shelter from other materials.
USE A NATURAL HOLLOW:
Even a shallow depression in the ground will provide some protection
from the wind and can reduce the effort in constructing a shelter. However
take the necessary measures to deflect the downhill flow of water around it,
especially if it is a hollow on a slope or you could find yourself lying in
a pool. Make a roof to keep the rain off the and the warmth in A few strong
branches placed across the hollow can support a light log laid over them,
against which shorter boughs and sticks can be stacked to give pitch to the
roof and so allow water to run off. Consolidate with turf or with twigs and
leaves.
FALLEN TRUNKS:
A log or fallen tree trunk makes a useful windbreak on its own, if it is at
the right angle to the wind. With a small trunk, scoop out a hollow in the
ground on the leeward side. A log makes also an excellent support for a lean
to roof of boughs.
DRAINAGE & VENTILATION:
A run-off channel gouged from the earth around any shelter in which you
are below or lying directly on, ground level will help to keep the shelter
dry. Hasty shelter will usually have many spaces where air can enter. Do not
try to seal them all: Ventilation is ESSENTIAL !
STONE BARRIERS:
A shelter is more comfortable if you can sit rather than lie in
it, so
increase its height by building a low wall of stones around your chosen
hollow or shallow excavation. Caulk between the stones especially the
lowest layer with turf and foliage mixed with mud, and deflect the flow
or rain-water around the shelter as shown below.
SAPLING SHELTER:
If suitable sapling growth is available, select two lines of sapling,
clear the ground between them of any obstructions and lash their tops
together to form a support frame for sheeting. Weight down the bottom edges
of the sheeting with rocks or timber. You can make a similar shelter from
pliable branches driven into the ground. If you lack sheeting, choose or
place sapling close together, weave branches between them and consolidate
with ferns and turf.
SHELTER SHEET:
With a waterproof poncho, groundsheet or a piece of plastic sheeting or
canvas you can quickly and easily make a number of different shelters which
will suffice until you can build something more efficient. Make use of
natural shelter (A) or make a triangular shelter with the apex pointing into
the wind (B). Stake or weigh down edges. If it is long enough curl the
sheeting below you running downhill so that it keeps out surface water (C).
Use dry grass or bracken as bedding.
NEVER lie on cold or damp
ground!!!
A closely woven fabric, though not impermeable will keep out most rain
if you set it at a steep angle. Fit one shelter a few inches within another
(D). The rain that does come through will rarely work its way through both
layers.
WARNING AGAINST DRIPPING:
With any woven fabric AVOID touching the inner surface during
rain or you will draw water through.
TEEPEES:
Best known from its North American from, the tepee occurs in many
cultures. THE QUICKEST TYPE TO ERECT has three or more angled support
poles, tied where they cross to make a cone. They can be tied on the ground
and lifted into place before covering with hides, birch bark panels or
sheeting. Leave an opening at the top for ventilation. Wider angle will give
greater area but shed rain less easily.
TROPICAL SHELTERS:
In rain forest and tropical jungle the ground is damp and likely to be
crawling with insects life, leeches (yerk!) and other undesirable. Instead
of bedding down on the ground you will be better in a raised bed.
Consequently you may want to make higher shelters. (Tarzan style!) Unless
you are at an altitude high enough to make the nights cold you will be less
concerned with protection from the wind than with keeping reasonably dry. A
thatching of palm, banana and other large leaves makes the best roofs and
walls.
ATAP:
Also known as Wait a while vine, Atap is especially useful, despite the
barbs at each leaf tip which make careful handling necessary. Look for any
plant with a similar structure (A) the bigger the better. The broader the
individual leaflets the better also. Atap is best used horizontally
splitting each leaf into two from the tip (B) then tearing it into 2 clean
halves down its length. Do not try to split from the tick end or you will
end up with a broken branch. Closely layer halves of Atap on your roof frame
(C). You can let it be a little less dense on walls. Woven Atap can be
particularly effective for the sides of a shelter.
ANOTHER METHOD:
Do not split down the leaf but fold the leaflets on one side across to
the other and interweave them (D). You will probably find this easiest if
you work first from one side then the other but it does takes practice.
THREE-LOBED LEAVES: Or
leaves cut in this fashion (E) can be locked over a thatching frame without
any other fixing being necessary to hold them in place (F).
ELEPHANT GRASS:
And other large leaves can be woven between the cross-pieces (G). Only a
small number are needed to produce a shelter very quickly.
LONG BROAD LEAVES:
Can be sown along the thatching battens with vines.
PALM & OTHER LONG STEMMED
LEAVES:
They can be secured by carrying the stem around the batten and over the
front of the leaf, where it is held in place by the nest leaf (I) Leaves
MUST overlap those below on the outside of the shelter.
BAMBOO:
This large-stemmed plant actually a grass, is a very versatile
building material and can be used for pole supports, flooring and walls.
The giant form of bamboo- which can be over 30m (100ft) high and 30cm (1ft)
in diameter - is an Asian plant found in damp places from India to China
both in the lowlands & on mountain slopes. But there are types native to
Africa and Australia and two which are found in the southern USA. Split
bamboo vertically to make roofing and guttering to collect rainwater. The
split stems, laid alternately to interlock with one another, form efficient
and waterproof plant tiles. Flatten split bamboo for smooth walls, floors or
shelving by cutting vertically through the joints every 1.25cm (1/2in) or so
around the circumference. It can then be smoothed out. The paper like
sheaths formed at the nodes can also be used as roofing material.
WARNING! WARNING! BAMBOO:
Take great care when collecting bamboo. It grows in clumps which are
often a tangled mass. Some stems are under tension and when cut fly
forcefully and dangerously apart, exploding in sharp slivers. Split bamboo can be razor sharp & cause serious injuries. The husk at
the base of bamboo stems carry small stinging hairs which cause severe skin
irritations.
LIGHT STRUCTURES:
Follow the methods outlined for the lean-to structure. You can extend it
with a less angled roof and a front wall or you can build vertical walls and
roof them over with deep eaves to give you extra shade from the sun and to
ensure that rain runs off well away from the hut. Dig a channel to carry any
water away. If you have bamboo or other strong material available to build a
firm frame, raise the floor of your shelter off the ground in tropical
climates, so reducing access to ground creatures. In Hot climates you
will need to make your roof solid to keep out the rain and give good
protection from the sun burns. If it projects well over the walls, you can
leave them as fairly open lattice to allow air to pass through. Grasses and
mud will seal cracks and all kinds of material will make a thatch if woven
between roof cross pieces of sticks or cords. In climates with heavy
rainfall use leaves or bark like tiles on top.
BUILDING WITH RUSHES:
When neither trees nor bamboo are available, rushes or other strong
stems can be tied in bundles to form structural pillars a method used by the
Marsh Arabs of Iraq. Tie reeds in long thick bundles by starting and
finishing with a clove-hitch knot. Choose the longest reeds and ensure that
their ends are spaced out along the length of the bundle so that they do not
cause a weal point by coming all together. The base should be a flat end,
the other should taper. Prepare more reed bundles, thinner and longer if
possible. They will be used for securing the sides of your shelter. Range
thick columns of reeds on the longs sides of your shelter site. Dig the
thick ends into the earth and link the columns a short way up each by
lashing on thinner bundles horizontally between them. Bend the tops of the
columns towards each other, overlapping them and binding them together. Add
more thin bundles to link the sides of the columns and carry up over the
arches. Interweave a wattle of reeds between this framework, using thinner
reeds until adequate shelter is provided or weave separate panels of leaves
& reeds to attach to it
SOD HOUSE (TURF):
Turf-built shelters are an alternative to log cabins when timber is
scarce or there are no tools to cut it. Cut sections of turf 45 X 15cm
(18X6in) and build with them like bricks, overlapping them to form a bond.
(Yes James!) Slopes the sides to give pitch to the roof- to support which
you will have to find spars of wood or other strong material. The greater
the pitch, the better rain will be repelled. The length of the spars will
determine the size of the structure. Lay turf on the roof as well, or
cover it with grass. Unless you have a great deal of turf available keep the
structure low, big enough to sit on the floor but not big enough to stand.
One side could be open facing the fire.
BROWSE BED:
It is famous but its construction requires a great deal more systematic
efforts. You need first of all a surprising quantity of the softest
available boughs. Among the best for the purpose are the small young
branches of the heavily needled balsam, but fir and even spruce will do
nearly as well. These boughs can in the absence of knife and axe be stripped
off by hand. They can easily be carried if laid one by one over a long stick
which has an upward angling fork at its bottom whereupon interlocking
needles will hold the light although bulky load in place. The operation is
started by placing a thick layer of resilient green boughs at the head of
the bed. These we lay with their underneath upward. They are placed, in
other words, opposite from the way they grow. The butts are kept well
covered and pointing toward the bottom of the bed. The browse bed is
thatched in this matter with row after row of boughs until it is a foot or
more thick. Whereupon it is reinforced and leveled by the poking in of soft
young evergreen tips wherever an opening can be found. Unfortunately it has
to be redone every third night.
SWINGING SHELTER:
A forked pole at least 4 to 5 inches thick and 8 feet long with a side
branch coming of at right angles to the fork and 4 to 5 feet below it is
required. To the side branch a rope or very strong vine loop is secured,
passed around a tree trunk and then bound very securely back on to the side
branch. The long arm of the pole should be horizontal & 6 to 7 feet long to
the ground. To make the shelter top, lash 3 feet stakes each about 2 inches
thick to each side of the pole. They should slope down at an angle of about
45 degrees & can be held outward by lashing braces across. Length ways to
these poles lash thatching battens each about 1 inch thick and 8 feet long.
These should be 6 inches apart. They are then thatched with grass, fern
palms or reeds. (branches and tree leaves are useless.) The bed is
suspended from the centre pole by ropes or vines to the 2 long sides which
are held apart by lashing 2 cross bars at head and foot. The bed is then
made up like the camp bed. This shelter can be swung round the tree trunk to
take advantage of sun or shade or get better protection from the weather.
SHELTER FOR THE MAKING:
Where we are with what we have, right now! A fallen tree is often at
hand, even when we are looking for one under whose roots a browse bed can be
laid so as to benefit from the luxury of a crackling night blaze. Nor is it
unusual to come upon a dry indentation in a stream bank that can be quickly
roofed with brush and cheered by a campfire in front. No canopy is more
pleasant under favorable conditions than the open sky. The only refinement
we want on such nights if indeed we desire any, are a mattress of evergreen
boughs a long hardwood fire and maybe behind us a log to reflect warmth onto
those portions not turned toward the friendly heat. On other occasions-when
there is a storm or cold or when the situation is such that our every
reasonable long range effort should be directed at conserving the utmost
vigor.
The time and energy required for throwing up a bivouac
may well be returned several fold.
Under circumstances when it
may be desirable or perhaps obligatory to remain in one area, we may as well
enjoy the sanctuary that for a combination of reasons is the best reasonably
available. This will be especially true if sufficient food is at least
temporarily lacking, for then we may expect strength to be maintained in
direct proportions to our ability to remain comfortably and warmly relaxed.
CONIFEROUS SHELTER:
No one needs have much difficulty in finding sanctuary in softwood
country, for no axe IS NECESSARY and in fact, we can get along very
well without even a knife. A heavy grove of big evergreen itself affords
considerable shelter. From sudden shower you can keep dry by just lingering
under a spruce or pine. There is usually sufficient small growth in such a
forest to break off and angle in lean-to form against a protective log or
trunk.
CAPTAIN BRION NICHE:
It is very simple to make a niche by stripping of a few lower branches
from a well situated tree. These boughs augmented by others from nearby
trees will quickly floor & thatch the shelter. Such a nook is particularly easy to heat
with the great amount of fuel almost ALWAYS available in such coniferous terrain. If a blizzard is scuffing or rain
dripping and some easily handled bark such as that from birch trees is
available we'll probably want to insert a few sheets at least overhead.
"LEAN TO": THE MOST COMMON
& PRACTICAL IN EMERGENCY. THE LEAN TO IS AN EXCELLENT SHELTER IN ALL SEASONS
BECAUSE YOU CAN USE ALL KIND OF CAMP FIRES.
A pole framework is covered with a thatching of evergreen boughs or
rushes. When constructing the lean-to, find 2 trees about 7 to 9ft apart
with fairly level, firm ground between them. The distance between the trees
will be the length of the opening of the lean-to although it is possible to
incorporate variations. The number of people requiring shelter should
determine the size. When constructed for one man it should be made long for
him to sleep across the open mouth of the shelter, whereas for more than one
it should be planned for them to sleep lengthwise. One or both ends of the
ridge pole may be supported by a pie tripod if a second tree is not
available. This leaves the builder a wider choice of sites.
It should be REMEMBERED that
the steeper the slope angle of the roof the better it will shed rain and
reflect heat from the fire.
A 45 degree slope angle is generally considered a suitable compromise
between available interior space and rain shedding effectiveness. Once the
framework has been constructed proceed with the covering. Spruce boughs make
an excellent natural covering although the branches of any coniferous and of
many leave trees will do. They are placed on the lean to in the same manner
as shingles on a roof, the first row at the bottom and the last row at the
top. The brush ends of the boughs are placed down overlapping the butt ends
of the previous row. This method of thatching ensures that the rain will be
shed more readily. Continue to lay rows of boughs in this fashion until the
top of the lean to is covered. Repeat the entire procedure of thatching
until the entre roof is covered to a depth of at least 6". The triangular
sides are filled in with large boughs set butt end up as in thatching. The
parachute shroud or a canvas or the covering of plane wings are all
indicated to cover the lean to and to replace the evergreen boughs or with
them if need be.
WHEN VERY COLD:
When it is very cold you first place the canvas upon the frame then you
cover it with branches and evergreen. Inside the shelter the white color
of the canvas will better reflect the camp fire thus greater comfort.
WHEN VERY WET:
If however we run into a lot of rain or melting snow, then you MUST
put the evergreen boughs first then on top you put the canvas.Using
this method will help to keep the shelter dry. When possible it is HIGHLY
RECOMMENDED to lay a second layer of canvas.
ADVANTAGES OF THE LEAN TO:
The lean to is an excellent shelter in all seasons because you can
use all kind of camp fires. The shelter has a low entrance and its depth
is the width of a sleeping bag which permits for one person to have all his
body exposed to the heat of the fire and to be very comfortable even
under the greatest cold.(mmmMMM!!!) One can construct such a
shelter for many persons yet their head or feet are the only exposed part to
the fire so it is not as comfy as if you were parallel to the fire's warmth.
One can construct 2 lean to face to face with a fire in the middle but it is
difficult to place them so as to AVOID the smoke swirling into one or
the other lean to. First you think you have succeeded then the least draft
blows it into the shelter make it unbearable.
JOIN THEM IT’S BETTER!:
So while you are at it, why not join those 2 lean to that are facing one
another so as to make a big shelter. Just keep on working till their top
reach one another and there it is
LEAN TO # 2 TWO TOO!:
More complicated frames are easily enough assembled, particularly when
the joints are fastened if only by lashing by lashing them with fine but
tough spruce roots. Or with wiry birch or willow withes.(#?) Natural
forks can be used instead, however. So can the braces.
NO NEED OF KNIFE EVEN:
Although a knife will simplify the task, not even that IS NECESSARY.
The skeleton can then be draped, interfaced or otherwise covered with green
branches, bark, moss, grass, reeds, leafy vines and other such materials.
The few basic principles are self evident. When thatching a roof, as we do
with bark, we will naturally start at the eaves and lay the bottom of each
suddeding layer across the top of the thickness beneath, so that any water
will tend to flow unimpeded off the edge. If we happen to build a roof with
a double pitch, we'll further waterproof that by bending bark over the ridge
and fastening or weighting it down on each slant.
BOTTOM THATCHING IS A
MUST:
When thatching the walls, we will of course start at the bottom as if
shingling and work our way up layer by layer with each higher series ALWAYS
covering the one immediately below. Water will then be
more apt to run down the outside of the structure instead of into it.
GOING ABOUT THE
CONSTRUCTION:
Probably the most satisfactory way to describe a few of the more common
types of lean-to is by means of the following self-explanatory illustration.
From them, even the newest greenhorn can pix #ure out the most practical way
to use whatever wilderness materials happen to be at hand If we have
something such as a tarpaulin to stretch over a pole framework, our work
will be considerably lessened. This will also be true to a considerable
extent if only the roof can thus be quickly made waterproof.
GOOD TO CARRY ON YOU AT
ALL TIME:
A large rectangle of plastic, folded and carried in a shirt pocket is a good
thing to take along at all times if only for possible emergency use as a
rainy day cover. Or use the survival blanket even a large strong garbage.
OPEN LEAN-TO SHELTER #3:
If there is nothing solid to lean a roof against and you are not trying
to keep out of heavy rain or a blizzard. Use panels of wattle or frames
covered in grass for protection. Erect a horizontal cross-piece between
trees or on simple supports. On the windward side lean a panel of wattle or
tie or lean saplings at 45 degrees to make a roof. Add side walls as
necessary.
REFLECTOR:
(A) Site your fire on the leeward. Add side pieces and this is
the trick, build a reflector (B) on the other side of the fire to MAKE SURE
that you get the full benefit of the warmth.
WHY NOT A HUT? MAKING
WALLS FOR BETTER SHELTERS:
It may be expedient to build an emergency shelter so substantial that
its wall can be additionally insulated by heaping sod or earth against them.
If these walls are leaned in slightly from the bottom, gravity will tend to
hold such reinforcements more firmly. The roof can also be made warmer by
covering it with several inches of vegetation, topped by enough dirt or
preferably more durable sod to keep everything in place. An animal skin,
some contrivance of woven vines or perhaps an available fabric may be hung
over an opening to serve as a door. An open stone fireplace can be made in
the centre of the dirt floor of such a shelter. Although a chimney hole will
then have to be cut in the roof for ventilation, this vent may be kept
covered when the fire is entirely out. It should not be closed otherwise
because of the threat of CARBON MONOXIDE Poisoning.
DOOR IN RELATION TO WIND:
When the wind is any problem, the opening of a temporary shelter is
usually placed on the side away from it.
DOME STRUCTURE shelter:
Even if no wood large enough for the ordinary lean-to is available, we can still make a very comfortable structure from growth as slight as
willow. Let us obtain first a quantity of the longest wands we can find.
We can then, after examining them, draw a rough outline of the house. This
at most should not ordinarily be much wider than the average length of the
material. The base of such a structure may be oval. It may be rectangular,
in which case the final shelter may well resemble a barrel split lengthwise.
Whatever the general conformation in other words we will find it
advantageous structurally to employ rounded sides and roof. Lets start by
securing the larger end of one wand in the ground on the outline there
scratched which for purposes of illustration let us assume is a circle.
Opposite the first wand on the round line, let us set the bigger end of the
second switch. We can then draw the tops together in the middle and tie them
with roots, string, vines, rawhide or any convenient material. Let us
similarly set and bend another 2 wands so that above the centre of the
circle they cross the first arch at right angles. At this apex we will lash
all 4 together. The curve of the dome roof now defined, will govern the
decreasing size of subsequent arches. A few inches away or perhaps as much
as a foot or so if our covering is to be canvas or light skins, we may make
a slightly lower arch parallel to the first. This we may cross at right
angles with a similar arch. This crisscrossing operation we may continue in
such a fashion except to allow for an entrance, tying each of the numerous
joints, until the frame is sufficiently sturdy. There need be no particular
methodicalness, however for functional variations are as numerous as
materials and situations. If additional supports are later needed these can
be added as necessary. We may weave moss or grass through the final
basketlike framework in lieu of anything better, perhaps laying on a second
coat which can be both secured and insulated with a thick plastering of mud
and snow.
TARP-CABIN:
This shelter requires a considerable amount of work and when completed
will a degree of permanency that other don't have. In building the cabin
particular attention MUSTbe paid to the choice of location, as
the cabin is not portable. Choose an area close to water supply, yet not in
a valley.The ridges offer much more comfortable living conditions
freedom from insects, flooding. The area should also offer an abundant
supply of long straight logs 4 to 8" in diameter. Build 4 walls log cabin
fashion to a height of about 3ft. and then build a frame work of light poles
to support a covering of parachute material or canvas.
CANVAS:
From this stage its a simple matter to place this material over the
framework to form a finished shelter. It is preferable to use a double
layer of fabricwith an air space between to improve the insulating and
water shedding qualities of the roof.
NO CANVAS:
To construct a hut when no canvas nor parachute, you MUSTthen
build the walls to the desired height and to add a roof made of #motte de
terre ou chaume# Don't try to build a complicated roof. All you need is a
roof as smooth as possible that will shed the rain at the back.
The lower the roof the
easier to heat.
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5. Water
a. Requirements
SLOSHING ALONG:
Water is vital when you’re exerting yourself. Any appreciable activity,
including walking with a heavy pack, will cause you to perspire much more
than in your every day humdrum existence. You can only compensate for this
by drinking proportionately more. Since you will surely get thirsty so take
advantage of that urge but REMEMBER to do it slowly. Sip your water, don't
chug it, particularly if it's from a cold mountain stream. Ditto for ice and
snow in wintertime. Salt tablets are usually recommend for extended trips
involving continuous strenuous activity.
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5. Water
b. Finding
FINDING WATER:
There are no handy kitchen faucets in the wilds except in the larger
campgrounds with their trailers & recreation vehicles bumper to bumper, &
six-man tents guy line to guy line. If you're not in one of these, and don't
happen to be hiking along the course of a river or canoeing over chains of
lakes, where do you find water? Your map will help if it's detailed enough.
Almost any water source of any size, including annual spring freshet, will
be marked on a geodesic map. Even so, it's a good idea to be aware of where
water is most likely to be found, just in case you left the map at the last
log rest stop.
Besides, knowing nature, being familiar with
its habits, gives you a real sense of understanding & accomplishment that is
very much a part of the joy of camping. In mountainous and forest regions
such as Eastern and Western Canada, & the USA and most of Northern Europe,
water rarely presents a problem. Almost any downhill country, be it a long
slow valley or a deep gorge, will lead to it. These natural formations
developed through water erosion, and the sculpture tells the tale. As you
walk, keep your eyes open for a change not only in terrain but in vegetation
as well. If you see a crooked line of willows or willow like trees in the
distance:
IT'S ALMOST A SURE BET YOU'LL FIND A
STREAM WHEN YOU GET THERE.
The mountain ahead is bare, with no water or greenery in sight. One side
comes down steeply to a heavy rock formation; the other side slopes gently
down to a valley and gently up to another mountain. Head for the sloping
side rather than the steep escarpment. It has a much slower run off larger
surface area, and thus a greater likelihood of retained water. Cottonwoods
in arid country serve much the same purpose as willows in country more
hospitable. A chain of cottonwood in the distance indicates a river bed.
Whether that bed turns out to be wet or dry is another question. But if it's
dry, examine the ground by one of the largest and most ancient of the
cottonwoods, on the inside bank of the old river's curve; you will usually
fund a small pool of water. At least there should be enough ground moisture
so that if you really need water you can dig down a foot or so and find
seepage.
REMEMBER THOUGH THAT USUALLY IT DOES NOT
PAY TO DIG FOR WATER.
With the amount of energy used the moisture lost in sweat usually far
exceeds that gained from the hole you have dug. Any lush vegetation in arid
terrain indicates water in one form or another. Birds, such as Doves** or
Blackbirds, in flock on the ground, quail in any quantity, are other signs
of a water source nearby. You will need 2 quarts a day under average
conditions but in the desert or during periods of heavy activity this rises
to 4 quarts or more per person per day.
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5. Water
c. Filtering &
Disinfecting
WATER PURITY:
Once you have found a water source, you have 2 old drinking rules to
choose from, depending on how healthy you are, how cautious you are and
where you are. The first is, when doubt about water, purify it. The second
is, a lively bubbling stream cleans itself in 30 feet of flowing over rocks
and sands. Or as one old codger I know, referring to the same quality of
stream bed, puts it succinctly, "If the cow's around the bend, the water's
fit to drink." Which rule you follow is up to you. We tend to use the second
when in mountainous, wooded country. Our stomachs might not be cast iron,
but they are pretty resistant to Montezuma's Revenge and La Turista. Yet as
pollution increases we lean more & more to the first rule. Boiling takes a
lot of fuel and a lot of time to cool off but in dangerous regions it is
better to drink a lot of tea rather than wait for the water to cool off.
Halazone 1 tablet per pint of water or 2 if in ANY doubt. You MUST still let
it stand 1/2 hour or more to be safe to drink but taste funny like a
swimming pool. Yet aerating the water by pouring it back and forth between
two containers several times will eliminate most of the chlorine taste. This
chemical is quite volatile and if you hold your breath while drinking it,
you will hardly taste a thing.
WATER WARNING:
Since most of the common diseases in a survival situation are
water-born, pollution of drinking water MUST BE rigorously avoided. MAKE
SURE YOU BOIL IT FOR 10 MINUTES. Just moistening your lips with 1 drop of
impure water may sicken you to the point where you can't travel!
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5. Water
d. Storing & Toting
Back to Top
6. Fire
a. Location &
Site Preparation
WHERE TO BUILD A FIRE:
A fireplace is most safely built on a rock outcropping. A sandy stretch or
hard-packed, stony, or clay-like mineral soils are also good. But building
on loamy ground with a high content of organic material, particularly in
heavily forested country, can mean igniting subterranean
roots, which sometimes smolder for weeks before resurfacing, yards away
from the original, long since forgotten fire. A tree will make a million
matches, and it only takes one match to destroy a million trees. You can
NEVER be too carefully. Forest fires are immensely destructive. Several
factors besides the ground conditions dictate the location of your fire.
There should be no overhanging branches lower than ten feet above the
flames. "Squaw wood", the dead limbs still held fast to a tree which
incidentally, make good firewood & whose removal does no damage should be
even higher. Don't build the fire on a promontory or other exposed place.
The winds that spring up the moment you've got the fire going will fan the
flames, making them burn well too well. You'll use much more wood than
necessary; it will heat poorly, since cold air will constantly replace the
warm; and most important, you'll greatly increase the danger of forest fire.
A good gust will not only pick up sparks and send them flying, but sometimes
carry off a two- or three-inch long twig or splinter, whose weight has been
almost reduced to nothing by burning, but whose centre is still glowing hot.
A last consideration, one of comfort, is smoke. Here I'm supposed to tell
you to MAKE SURE the fire is so located in relation to your tent that the
smoke stays away. Good luck Charlie Brown! I don't ever seem to build a fire
that sends smoke where it is supposed to. Still, it's worth a try guessing
in which direction the fickle wind is least likely to blow.
THE FIRE PLACE:
A camp fireplace serves two functions: to contain the fire and to
balance your grill or pan if your COOK-KING over it. Although there are
countless designs serving these purposes you are best off sticking with
either the U or the keyhole. The keyhole fireplace is, again, just what the
name implies. Round at one end and tapering to a six- or eight-inch-wide
slit at the other. It is very functional. You burn wood in a circle. As
coals form, you poke them over into the slot. Your cooking is thus not
subjected to the vagrancy's of leaping flames, but has an even, constant
coal heat.
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6. Fire
b. Choosing &
Gathering Materials
BRANCHES OFF:
If you are using an axe or hatchet to chop dried branches for your fire
from a downed tree trunk, you should begin at the top (head) of the tree and
work your way down to the base. To cut the branch, keep the tool parallel to
the trunk and chop from the head of the tree in the direction of the root or
base. This will seem counterintuitive, chopping into the "V", but is the
correct way (from centuries of experience) to "limb" a tree. Better yet, put
down the sharp object and just yank away at the branches. If they don't
crack off easily, they are probably wetter than you want anyway. Using an
axe or a hatchet can be extremely hazardous.
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6. Fire
c. Firestarting &
Maintenance
STARTING A FIRE:
If it's been raining heavily or you're in a swamp, you may have to tuck
some fire starter another small item to REMEMBER to stow away in odd
crannies of your gear inside the kindling. Either fire ribbon or solid
tablets like Hexamine and Heatabs work surprisingly well. Leftover candle
stubs will do, but they just don't turn out the same BTU's. Next you need
some kindling because tinder will not generate enough heat. Make a pyramid
of those pencil-sized & slightly larger branches to help your fire start
burning. Leave some air space between the tinder below and the kindling
above, some more space between the kindling sticks themselves. If you want a
rule of thumb, the distance between the two burning pieces of wood, be they
twigs or logs, should be about half their diameter. This interval is vital
not only to permit circulation of the necessary oxygen, but also to reflect
the heat back and forth between the two sticks. It's very difficult to keep
one log burning well. The flame from one log burning is about the same as
the sound of one hand clapping. Two of them with space in between will burn
just fine. A good camper should be able to get all the fire he needs for
these purposes from one large fallen branch. Tinder from the twigs at its
tips, kindling from the branchlets and fuel from the main bough broken into
6 or 7 inch long pieces. Give it a try next time. P/S: Don't forget to
quench the fire!
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6. Fire
d. Camp Stoves
STOVE YES! KITCHEN SINK NO!:
By all means plan to build a fire when it's possible, when you really
need one, when you really, really want one, but take a stove along for most
of your cooking even cook-king.
THE LITTLE STOVE THAT COULD:
The Optimus/Svea/Primus Brands of stoves, products of the consolidation
of Sweden's leading manufacturers in the field, are the closest thing to
Aladdin's lamp modern technology has to offer.
WHITE GAS STOVES:
The Primus 71, weighing twenty oz, & the Svea 123; 18 ounces, are
compact little stoves that utilize white or unleaded, gas and need no
priming. They are miracles of efficiency. We usually manage to cook anywhere
from four to eight hot meals on one filling of the Primus's half-pint tank,
depending on the menu, the altitude, and the temperature. Even eight hot
meals, of course, aren't enough for most camping trips. To carry spare white
gas, you'll need one of the slim spun aluminum bottles usually sold wherever
the stoves are. These have gasket screw tops. Although they may look as if
they might leak, they NEVER do at least not the first half dozen years.
After that I've found it best to replace the gasket.
Additionally, you will need a doll sized funnel, preferably with a fine
mesh filter as an extra precaution against impurities. The funnel enables
you to pour gas from the bottle into the stove without spilling. A tiny
shielded cleaning wire mounted on a flat aluminum blade comes with each
stove. Use it. Just poke it through the flame hole once or twice each time
before lighting the stove. That's to make certain nothing has clogged this
vital orifice.
Most of the small white gas stoves work on the self-pressure principle.
The heat of the flame expands the gas below, forcing it as vapor up through
the flame hole. If the hole is clogged, the vaporized gas has to go
somewhere else or the stove would explode like a Molotov cocktail. To this
end there is a safety valve. However, I've NEVER had any problems with mine,
nor do I know anyone who has. To ready the stove, check that the valve is
closed, then fill the tank about three quarters of the way up with gas.
NEVER fill it completely. There has to be room for the fluid to expand into
gas vapor. Otherwise the stove won't function well. Next, take the cleaning
wire and poke it into the burner hole a couple of times to MAKE SURE it's
clear. Do it even the first time you try out a brand-new stove, just to get
into the habit.
Another habit to get into is putting the cleaning wire back into the
base, lid, or wind screen of the stove somewhere, in other words, where you
won't forget it when you go to pack the stove up again. The there's my way.
I just pick up the stove, unscrew the filler cap on the tank, and huff and
puff until I've driven enough fuel out the burner to get some down into the
vaporizing depression. Then I screw the filler cap back on. This method
requires cocking your head and keeping the stove relatively vertical. Also,
drinking gasoline is most unhealthy, so don't let your mind wander and
absentmindedly think you're holding on to a canteen. There is no reason why
you should get gasoline in your mouth if you are careful and no one slaps
your back heartily while your huffing. If you should spit it out. I am what
I would call relatively careful and have NEVER had a mouthful of trouble.
Butane stoves: are next to worthless below freezing, and at 15"F the fuel
turns to slush so you can forget about it altogether. High altitude cooking
with butane also does not work well.
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6. Fire
e. Caring for Burns
<grin>
Back to Top
PLENTY OF ROPE:
Almost any camping trip calls for a length of rope at one time or
another to hang your food up with, to rig a tarp tent, to tow a canoe, or
even just for games of tug of war among the kids. On most trips 50 feet
double that figure for canoe camping or tarp tenting of 8 inches nylon rope
is just about right It has a breaking strength of 400-800 pounds, depending
on type & manufacturer, which is sufficient for most purposes. Quarter-inch
nylon has a breaking strength of 1,200-1,800 pounds, which you'll need to
tow or track a canoe. Braided nylon "parachute cord" with a 500 pound
breaking strength, available in hundred foot skeins, is good for all around
suspension work from tarps to clotheslines. Nylon rope gives a bit, which
means you have to check it occasionally when using it for hitches. But you
should get into that habit anyhow. Its strength is two and a half time that
of hemp; it frays less; it's easily whipped by holding a lit match at one
end, melting it a bit; and it's hardly susceptible to mildew. Even so, keep
it dry & clean, and coiled when in storage around camp or at home.
WHIPPING ROPES:
The end of a rope MUST BE secured in some way so that it does not
unravel. To prevent the strands from fraying, bind the rope with twine. Good
binding or "whipping" MUST BE tight and neat to be effective. If it is too
slack it will work loose of fall off. It is difficult to make a good
whipping with thick cord and very***? this is prone to slip. Experience will
enable you to match the thickness to the job. Use the whipping techniques to
add a comfortable grip to handles of axes and parangs or, thicker to replace
handle of a knife.
1) Lay a length of twine along the side of the rope, leaving its end (*a)
projecting a hand's length beyond the rope's end.
2) Whip the twine (*b) around the rope, working towards the end, and
gradually covering the piece you have laid along it.
3) Now form the loose end of the twine (*a) into a loop and lay it back
along the whipped section.
4) Carry on with the whipping covering the loop until you have nearly
reached the end of the rope.
5) Now pass the end (*b) whipping through the loop and pull the short end
(*A) tight. Trim off ends neatly.
KNOTS:
There is a knot for every job and it is important to select the right
one for the task at hand. You NEVER know when you may need to tie a knot so
learn their uses and how to tie each one - well enough to tie them in the
dark and under all kinds of conditions. Learn to untie them too. The only
thing that is worse that tying a knot that comes undone is knot that CANNOT
be undone at a crucial moment. In the instructions for individual knots that
follow the end of the rope or cord being used to tie the knot is referred to
as the "live end" to distinguish it from the other end of the rope or
"standing part".
NOTE ON ROPES AND LINES.
Ropes can be made from any pliable, fibrous material producing strands
of sufficient length & strength. Nylon rope have the advantage of great
inherent strength, lightness, resistance to water, insects and rot. However
nylon rope should not be the automatic choice if choosing equipment. Nylon
has the disadvantage that it can melt if subjected to heat and friction on a
rope produces heat. It is also slippery when wet. While its tensile strength
is good, nylon also tends to snap if subjected to tension over an edge - it
does not have to be a very sharp edge either, so BE CAREFUL of this.
TYPES OF ROPE:
Kernmantel type encloses a central core of strands in an outer sheath.
Easier to handle, except when icy or wet, but no strong as hawser. It can
unravel if cut. Traditional Hawser-laid rope has 3 bundles of fibers twisted
together. If one is severed the others may hold.
CHOOSING ROPE:
Match type, thickness and length of rope you carry to the demands you
expect to make on it. Nylon will have advantages in very damp climates and
when weight is critical but REMEMBER its drawbacks. Thickness of 7mm
(5/16in) and below are difficult to handle. Rope about 9-10mm (3/8in) is
usually recommended for Lashing, Throwing and Mountaineering. It can be used
for safety lines and for climbing, provided belay and abseiling techniques
are used. It is not thick enough for a hand over hand and foot grip. A
length of 30-40m (100-125ft) would then be as