This book is included in the Self Reliance - Clothing & Textiles section.
Animal & Vegetable Fixed Oils, Fats, Butters, & Waxes
Their Preparation & Properties
and the
Manufacture therefrom of Candles, Soaps, and other Products
~ : ~
LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN & COMPANY, LTD.
Exeter Street, Strand; 1865
PREFACE
The complete discussion of the
Sources, Production, and General Technology of the numerous substances included
in the term Oils, and of the intimately associated Fats, Butters, and Waxes (all
of which are practically oils when melted), would require far more space than is
compatible with the limits of the present work; it has accordingly been found
indispensable to make a selection from this wide field, as the result of which
the subjects now dealt with are narrowed down to the Animal and Vegetable Fixed
Oils and allied substances; whilst Mineral Oils, Products of
Distillation, Essential Oils, and various analogous materials are only discussed
in so far as they are associated with the Fixed Oils in their technological
applications. For the same sufficient reason minute details respecting the
various special tests employed in the practical examination of oils, &c., for
adulterations have, as a rule, been omitted; as also have the descriptions of
the distinctive properties and qualities of the individual oils and fats,
excepting in a comparatively small number of typical cases. In short, the object
aimed at has rather been to give general descriptions of the methods whereby
Animal and Vegetable Oils and Fat are obtained from natural sources, of their
leading practical applications and uses, and of their chief physical and
chemical properties and reactions, than to enter into special details, and to
discuss minutely the analytical tests and processes applicable in each separate
case for the detection of adulteration.
The literature relating to the chemistry and technology of fixed oils arid fats
is already voluminous, and yearly
increases considerably in magnitude, being mostly dispersed throughout the pages
of numerous scientific and technical serials. Amongst the periodicals of this
description consulted for the purpose of gathering together to some extent these
scattered results and items may be more particularly mentioned : --
The Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry.
The Journal of the Society of Arts.
The Journal of the Chemical Society.
The Analyst.
The Chemical News.
Zeitschrift fur angewandte Chemie.
Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft.
Dingler's Polytechnisches Journal.
Biedermann's Technisch-Chemisches Jahrbuch.
Moniteur Scientiftque.
Bulletin de la Societe Chimique de Paris.
Comptes rendus.
Besides many others in which papers bearing on the matters in hand appear from time to time. Various text-books and technical dictionaries previously published in this country or abroad have also been freely consulted with the object of rendering the present work as complete as possible, with due regard to the limits of space. In particular the author desires to express his indebtedness to the following works: --
Schadler, Technologic der Fette und Oele* Berlin, 1883.
Allen, Commercial Organic Analysis, vol. ii., Second edition. London, 1886.
Schadler, Untersuchungen der Fette und Oele* Leipzic, 1889.
Benedikt, Analyse der Fette und Wachsarten, Second edition. Berlin, 1892.
* Whilst the present book was in the press the two works by
Schadler above mentioned have been incorporated into a single volume, edited by
P. Lohmann after the decease of the original author.
To the firm of Kose, Downs, & Thompson, of Hull, the author is greatly indebted
for numerous illustrations of the
most recent and effective forms of oil mill machinery, as well as for valuable
information concerning their use in oil
extraction generally. In similar fashion be desires to thank Messrs. Neill &
Sons, of St. Helens, for a variety of specially made drawings of appliances used
in soap manufacture; Messrs. S. H. Johnson, of Stratford, for drawings of the
newest forms of filter presses ; and Messrs. E. Cowles & Co., of Hounslow, for
cuts of improved candlemaking machines.
C. R. ALDER WRIGHT.
LONDON, October, 1893.
§1. General Composition and Nature of Oils, Butters, Fats,
Waxes, and Allied Substances.
CHAPTER I. THE SOURCES AND GENERAL NATURE OF NATURAL AND
ARTIFICIAL OILS.
Meaning of the Terms "Oil," "Fat," "Butter," and "Wax,"
Sources and General Nature of Oils,
Nature of Saponification Changes,
Classification of Oils, Fats, Waxes, &c. , according to Chemical Composition,
CHAPTER II. ALCOHOLIFORM SAPONIFICATION PRODUCTS
Glycerol, Glycerides, Hydrolysis of Glycerides,
Fatty Alcohols, Ethylic Series, &c.,
Glycols,
CHAPTER III. ACID SAPONIFICATION PRODUCTS OF OILS, FATS,
WAXES, &c.
Fatty Acids- Acetic Family,
Oleic Family,
Linolic Family,
Linolenic Family,
Glycollic Family,
Ricinoleic Family,
Oxystearic Acids,
§2. Physical Properties of Oils, Fats, Waxes, &c.
CHAPTER IV. GENERAL PHYSICAL CHARACTERS.
Physical Texture and Consistency; Cohesion Figures,
Taste, Odour, and Colour,
Action of Polarised Light; Refractive Index,
Solubility of Oils, Fats, &c., in various Solvents,
Thermometric Scales,
Methods used in the Determination of Fusing and Solidifying Points,
Freezing and Melting Points of Oils, &c.,
CHAPTER V. SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND VISCOSITY.
Determination of Specific Gravity,
Construction of Tables of Errors for Hydrometers and Hydrostatic Balances,
Hydrometer Scales,
Relative Densities of the Principal Oils, Fats, &c.,
Classification of Oils, Fats, &c.,
according to their Relative Densities,
Variation of Density of Oils, &c., with Temperature,
Viscosimetry ; Mechanical Testing Arrangements,
Efflux Viscosimeters,
Standards of Efflux Viscosity,
Relative Viscosity of Oils, &c.,
Determination of Viscosity in Absolute Measure,
§3. Chemical Properties of Oils, Fats, Butters, and Waxes.
CHAPTER VI. PROXIMATE CONSTITUENTS AND THE METHODS USED
FOR THEIR EXAMINATION AND DETERMINATION.
Compound Nature of Oils, Fats, and Waxes ; Variations in Composition with
Circumstances of Natural Formation,
Methods Employed for Separating Constituents,
Determination of Free Fatty Acids; Free Acid Number,
Determination of Unsaponifiable Constituents,
Determination of Water,
Adulteration of Fats with suspended Matters,
Sulphurised and Phosphorised Constituents,
CHAPTER VII. CHEMICAL REACTIONS or OILS, FATS, &c., AND
THEIR, USES AS TESTS OF PURITY, &c.
Effect of Heat on Oils, &c. ; Flashing Point,
Characteristic Oxidation Products,
Spontaneous Oxidation of Oils, Fats, &c.; Effect of Light thereon,
Spontaneous Combustion,
Film Test; Livache's Test,
Chemical Changes occurring during drying of Oils,
Elaidin Reaction ; Legler's Consistency Tester,
Nitric Acid Test,
Zinc Chloride Reaction and Colour Test; Action of Zinc Chloride on Oleic Acid,
Action of Sulphuric Acid on Oils and Fats ; Turkey Red Oils,
Maumene's Sulphuric Acid Thermal Test,
Various Colour Reactions,
Sulphur Chloride Reaction; Vulcanised Oils,
CHAPTER VIII. QUANTITATIVE REACTIONS OF OILS.
Koettstorfer's Test Total Acid Number,
Classification of Oils, &c., according to their Saponification Equivalents,
Practical Determination of Saponification Equivalents of Glycerides, &c.,
Proportion of Fatty Acids formed by Saponification,
Hehner's Test; Insoluble Acid Number,
Practical Determination of the amount of Fatty Acids formed on Saponification,
Corrections for Anhydro Derivatives, Free Acids, and Unsaponifiable Matters,
Mean Equivalent of Fatty Acids contained in Soap,
Reichert's Test and Modifications thereof,
Bromine and Iodine Absorption ; Bromine Process,
Iodine Process ; Hiibl's Test,
Iodine Numbers of Oils, Fats, &c.,
Acetylation Test ; Benedikt and Ulzer'sTest,
Methyl Iodide Test; Zeisel's Test,
Tabulated results of the various Quantitative Tests,
§4. Processes Used for Extracting, Rendering, Refining, and
Bleaching Oils, Fats, &c.
CHAPTER IX. EXTRACTION OF OILS FROM SEEDS, &c., BY
PRESSURE OR SOLVENTS.
Earlier forms of Press,
Elbow, Wedge, and Screw Presses,
Hydraulic Press,
Composition of Oilcake,
Oil Mill Plant ; "Unit" Mill,
Crushing Rolls and Edge Runners,
Kettle ; Moulding Machine,
Faring Machine ; Supplementary Appliances,
Decortication,
Filter Presses,
Separation of Solid Stearines from Oils, &c.,
Manufacture of Lard Oil, and Allied Products,
Extraction of Oil from Seeds, Oilcake, &c., by Solvents,
Extraction of Grease from Engine Waste, &c.,
Determination of Fat in Seeds, &c.,
Proportion of Fatty Matter Contained in Seeds, &c.,
CHAPTER X. ANIMAL FATTY TISSUES : EXTRACTION or OILS AND
FATS THEREFROM.
Rendering of Fatty Tissues by Dry Fusion,
Rendering of Fatty Tissues by Heating with Water or Steam under ordinary
Atmospheric Pressure,
Rendering under Increased Pressure,
Extraction of Fat from Bones,
CHAPTER XI. REFINING ANDBLEACHING ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE
OILS, FATS, WAXES, &c.
Suspended Matters,
Dissolved Matters,
Sulphuric Acid Process for Refining Oils, &c.,
Alkaline Refining Processes,
Utilisation of "Foots,"
Clarification,
Bleaching Oils and Fats,
Wax Bleaching,
CHAPTER XII. RECOVERY OF GREASE FROM "SUDS," &c.
Modes of Treating Soap Suds,
Analysis of Yorkshire Grease,
Distilled Grease,
Engine Waste Grease,
§5. Classification and Uses of Fixed Oils, Fats, Waxes, &c.
; Adulterations.
CHAPTER XIII. CLASSIFICATION.
Classification according to Texture, Sources, and Essential Chemical Nature,
CLASS I. Olive (Almond) Class; Vegetable Expression Oleines,
CLASS II. Rape (Colza) Class,
CLASS III. Castor Class,
CLASS IV. Animal Non-Drying Oils- Lard Oil Class,
CLASS V. Sesame or Cotton Seed Class Vegetable Semidrying Oils,
Lesser Known Vegetable Oils,
CLASS VI. Drying Oils Linseed - Oil Class, . . .290
CLASS VII. Train, Liver, and Fish Oils,
CLASS VIII. Vegetable Butters, Fats, Waxes, &c.,
Lesser Known Vegetable Butters, &c.,
CLASS IX. Animal Fats Tallow, Lard, and Butter Class,
CLASS X. Animal Oils Sperm Oil Class,
CLASS XI. Vegetable Nonglyceridic Waxes,
CLASS XII. Beeswax and Spermaceti Class,
CHAPTER XIV. PRINCIPAL USES OF OILS AND FATS, &c.
Classification according to Uses,
Edible and Culinary Uses of Oils, Fats, &c
Cotton Seed Stearine ; Vegetable Lards,
Manufacture of Hog's Lard,
Manufacture of Artificial Lard and Butter,
Utilisation of Fatty Matter from an Ox,
Lamp Oils,
Drying Oils used in making Paints and Varnishes,
Blown Oils Oxygen Process,
Miscellaneous Uses of Oils, Fats, &c. ; Manufacture of Lubricants,
Analysis of Lubricating Oils and Greases,
Turkey Red Oils; Analysis,
Currier's Grease, Sod Oils, and Degras,
Manufacture of Lanolin,
CHAPTER XV. ADULTERATION OF OILS AND FATS.
Methods employed in Detecting
Adulterations,
Relative Values of Oils,
General Characters of Olive Oil and Tests for Adulterations thereof,
Rape Seed and Colza Oil,
Linseed Oil,
Sperm Oil,
Tallow,
Beeswax,
Spermaceti,
§6. The Candle Industry.
CHAPTER XVI. MATERIALS USED IN CANDLEMAKING.
Origin of Candles; Combustible Materials,
Manufacture of "Stearine"; the Chevreul-Milly Process,
Composition and Analysis of "Rock,"
Milly- Autoclave Process,
Analysis of Red Oils, Separation Cake, and Similar Products, .
Sulphuric Acid Process,
Hydrolysis of Glycerides by Water only,
Utilisation of Red Oils,
CHAPTER XVII. MANUFACTURE OF CANDLES, TAPERS, AND NIGHT
LIGHTS.
Basted and Drawn Wax Candles, Tapers, &c.,
Dip Caudles; Dipping Machinery,
Wicks; Wick Pickling,
Moulded Candles; Handmade,
Continuous Moulding Machines,
Night Lights and Medicated Candles,
§7. The Soap Industry.
CHAPTER XVIII. MATERIALS USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF
SOAP.
Fatty Matters ; Alkalies,
Causticising Process,
Valuation of Alkalinity of Leys,
Corrections for Impurities,
English, French, and German Decrees,
Calculations,
Formulae,
CHAPTER XIX. SOAPMAKING PLANT.
Heating Appliances ; Free-fired Soap Coppers,
Morfit's Steam Twirl,
Steam-heated Soap Coppers,
Curb and Fan,
Soap Pumps,
Soap Frames,
Barring and Slabbing,
Crutching,
Toilet Soap Machinery ; Remelting,
Stamping,
Transparent Soaps,
Milling,
Plotting,
CHAPTER XX. MANUFACTURE OF SOAP.
Soapmaking Processes; Direct Neutralisation,
Calculations,
Processes in which the Free Glycerol is retained; Cold Process Soaps,
Soft, Hydrated, and Marine Soaps,
Calculations,
Processes in which the Glycerol is separated; Curd Soaps,
Graining,
Fitted and Mottled Soaps,
Special Varieties of Soap; Rosin Soaps, Silicated Soaps, &c.,
Toilet and Fancy Soaps; Milled Soaps,
Transparent Soaps, &c.,
Neutralised Soaps,
CHAPTER XXI. GENERAL CHEMISTRY OF SOAP SOAP ANALYSIS.
General Properties of Soaps; Hydrolysis of Soap Solutions,
Reaction of Soap Solution or of Fused Soap on Inorganic and other Salts,
Methods Used in the Analysis of Soap,
General Scheme for Analysis,
Composition of Manufacturers', Laundry, and Toilet Soaps, &c.,
Classification of Toilet Soaps according to amount of Free Alkali present,
CHAPTER XXII. GLYCEROL EXTRACTION MANUFACTURE OF
GLYCERINE.
Sources of Glycerol ; Extraction,
Valuation of Commercial Glycerine; Estimation of Glycerol in Watery Solution,
Glycerol in Soap Leys,
INDEX
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