Introduction

The Extension Agent's Handbook for Disaster Preparedness and Response can be a valuable response tool for you, the Extension agent, in times of emergency or as an aid in preparedness education activities. The Handbook is divided into two parts to provide the information you need in an easy-to-use format. The first section of the Handbook, General Family Preparedness, provides basic information you may need to access quickly in any disaster or emergency situation. It also may be used as a preparedness education tool for the public.

The second section of the Handbook covers 10 disaster specific situations. For the purposes of this manual, a disaster is any event which drastically affects a person's life or livelihood. Floods, fires, hurricanes, tornadoes, winter storms, earthquakes, droughts and volcanic eruptions are considered to be natural disasters, events over which one usually has no control. Radiological and hazardous materials accidents may be caused by the failure of people to maintain control over the operation, transportation or storage of certain materials. In addition to an overview of the disaster, each section provides a series of preparedness measures and post-disaster responses that should be taken in conjunction with those outlined in the General Family Preparedness section.

This handbook is not intended to cover every situation. It provides basic information you will need for a disaster situation and early post-disaster response. Because every community is different, special consideration for the local area should be taken into account along with the information provided in the Handbook.

Pages and sections of the Handbook may be removed and photocopied. Information is structured in a manner conducive to public use. Extension agents are encouraged to provide copies of the material to the public both as "preventive education" and for response needs.

This Handbook was developed as a joint effort of Extension Service-United States Department of Agriculture, the Texas Agricultural Extension Service and the Hazard Reduction and Recovery Center, Texas A&M University.

The information given herein is for educational purpose only. Reference to commercial products or trade names is made with the understanding that no discrimination is intended and no endorsement by the Texas Agricultural Extension Service is implied.

Educational programs conducted by the Texas Agricultural Extension Service serve citizens of all ages regardless of socioeconomic level, race, color, sex, religion, disability or national origin. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension Work in Agriculture and Home Economics, Acts of Congress of May 8, 1914, in cooperation with the United States Department of Agriculture. Zerle L. Carpenter, Director, Texas Agricultural Extension Service, The Texas A&M University System. 9/94

Acknowledgments

The following agencies and individuals have contributed to the development of this handbook.

American Red Cross-National Headquarters American Red Cross-Brazos Valley Chapter Arkansas Cooperative Extension Colorado Earthquake Hazard Reduction Program (CEHRP) Federal Emergency Management Agency Florida Cooperative Extension Service Hazard Reduction and Recovery Center-Texas A&M University (HRRC) Kansas State Cooperative Extension Service National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) National Weather Service Natural Hazards Centers-University of Colorado North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service North Carolina Emergency Management Penn State University Texas Agricultural Extension Service (TAEX) Texas Agri-Business Electric United States Department of Agriculture-Extension Service (ES-USDA) United States Department of Agriculture-Agriculture (Ag-USDA) United States Fire Administration (USFA) Washington State Cooperative Extension

Meri K. Appy - NFPA Dr. David Bilbo - TAEX/HRRC Dr. Wayne Blanchard - FEMA Dr. Judith Bowers - ES-USDA Dr. Billy Caldwell - NC Extension Jim Coyle - USFA Dr. Chester Fehlis - TAEX Dr. Guy Fipps - TAEX Wilma Hammet - NC Extension Dr. Phil Hamman - TAEX Catherine Henry - NC EM Dr. Glenda Herman - NC Extension Dr. Jennie Kitching - TAEX Harriet Jennings - NC Extension Virginia Kimball Dr. Bruce Lesikar - TAEX Shirley Lewis - TAEX Dr. Elizabeth Limersal - FEMA Dr. Rocky Lopes - ARC Mary Fran Myers - Natural Hazards Center Dr. Sherry Oaks - CEHRP Dr. Nell Page - TAEX Greg Parham - ES-USDA Dr. Susan Quiring - TAEX Brad Rein - ES-USDA Gordon Riall - TAEX Dr. Milo Schult - AR Extension Greg Stark - Texas Agri-Business Electric Bob Stephens - WA Extension Dr. John Sweeten - TAEX William Thomas - B/CS Red Cross Jay Todd - TAEX Dr. Doug Welsh - TAEX Dr. Dennis Wenger - HRRC Don Wernly - National Weather Service Sandra Zaslow - NC ExtensionSupplemental funding for reproduction and distribution provided by the College of Architecture Texas A&M University.

Table of Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
Acknowledgments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
General Family Preparedness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Why Preparedness? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Family Disaster Supply Kit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
4-Step Family Preparedness Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Preparing Children for Disaster. . . . . . . . . . . 10
Special Preparations for People with Disabilities. . 10
Special Preparations for the Hearing Impaired. . . . 11
Special Preparations for the Visually Impaired . . . 11
Evacuation Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Preparing for Evacuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Evacuating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Returning Home After the Disaster. . . . . . . . . . 15
When Disaster Strikes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
The Role of Government After a Disaster. . . . . . . 16
Emotional Recovery After a Disaster . . . . . . . . . . 17
Helping Children Cope After a Disaster . . . . . . . 18
Food Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Precautions Against Power Outages. . . . . . . . . . 20
After a Power Outage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Tornado and Wind Related Contamination . . . . . . . 21
Flooded Food Recovery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Food Safety After a Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Insurance and Resources After a Disaster. . . . . . . . 24
Special Post-Disaster Considerations. . . . . . . . . . 26
Restoring Flooded Water Systems. . . . . . . . . . . 26
Disinfecting Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Disposing of Animal Carcasses. . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Additional Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Drought .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Water Conservation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Water Conservation at Home. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Reading a Water Meter To Measure Leaks. . . . . . . . . 34
Installing a Low-Flow Showerhead. . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Installing Shower Flow Restrictors. . . . . . . . . . . 34
Installing Toilet Dams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Water Saving Steps When Remodeling. . . . . . . . . . . 36
Making Repairs To Toilets To Stop Water Loss. . . . . . 36
Repairing Faucet Leaks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Adding New Landscape Or Redesigning The Yard. . . . . . 39
Landscape Water Conservation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Watering Lawns and Plants During a Drought. . . . . . . 44
Special Considerations for Agricultural Producers . . . 45
Developing a Crop Water Management Plan. . . . . . . 45
Crop Water Requirements and Water Use Efficiencies . 46
Developing and Improving Vegetative Cover. . . . . . 48
Maintaining Vegetative Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Managing Salinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Earthquakes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
How Earthquakes are Measured. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Preparing for an Earthquake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
During an Earthquake. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Responses Inside Buildings During an Earthquake . . . . 55
Responses if You are Outside During an Earthquake . . . 55
After an Earthquake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Special Considerations for Agricultural Producers . . . 57

Residential Fires. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Fire Safety and Prevention. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
What to Do in Case of a Fire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
What to Do After a Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Floods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Preparing for Floods and Flash Floods . . . . . . . . . 63
Building Dikes To Prevent Minor Surface Flooding. . . . 64
Preventing Leaks in Basements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Cleaning Up After a Flood Setting Priorities. . . . . . 67
Salvaging Sewing Machines and Sergers . . . . . . . . . 68
Cleaning Flood-soiled Pillows and Mattresses. . . . . . 69
Cleaning Flood-soiled Blankets, Quilts, Comforters, Linens 72
Restoring Electrical Service After a Flood. . . . . . . 74
Flooded Gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Checking Flood-damaged Buildings. . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Cleaning and Repairing Flooded Basements. . . . . . . . 79
Finding and Repairing Leaks in Roofs. . . . . . . . . . 81
Controlling Rodents After Floods. . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Controlling Insects After Floods. . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Special Considerations for Agricultural Producers . . . 84
Preparing For a Flood or Flash Flood on Your Farm or Ranch 84
Protecting Livestock During a Flood. . . . . . . . . 84
Preparing to Evacuate Your Farm. . . . . . . . . . . 85
Safety Rules for Farm Clean-up . . . . . . . . . . . 86

Hazardous Materials Accidents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Preparing for Hazardous Materials Accidents in the Home 88
What to Do If a Hazardous Materials Accident Occurs . . 90
After a Hazardous Materials Incident. . . . . . . . . . 91
Reacting to a Hazardous Spill in Your Home. . . . . . . 92
Special Considerations for Agricultural Producers . . . 93
What to do if a Hazardous Materials Accident Occurs. 93
After a Hazardous Materials Accident . . . . . . . . 93

Hurricanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
How and Where Hurricanes Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Why Hurricanes are a Risk to People . . . . . . . . . . 95
How to Prepare for a Hurricane. . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Actions During a Hurricane Situation. . . . . . . . . . 97
Basic Response After a Hurricane. . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Special Considerations for Agricultural Producers . . . 99
Turf Grass Recovery After a Storm Surge. . . . . . . 99
Recovering Small Fruits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101

Radiological Accidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
Radiation Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
Preparing for a Nuclear Power Plant Accident. . . . . .105
What to Do in a Nuclear Power Plant Emergency . . . . .106
Safety of Home Gardens After a Nuclear Accident . . . .107
Recovering Losses and Expenses from a Nuclear Accident.107
Special Considerations for Agricultural Producers . . .108
What to Do in a Nuclear Power Plant Emergency. . . .108
Animal Care After a Nuclear Accident . . . . . . . .109
Recovering Exposed Fruits, Vegetables and Soils. . .110
Monitoring Fish and Marine Life. . . . . . . . . . .111
Marketing Animals and Products . . . . . . . . . . .111

Tornadoes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
How to Prepare for a Tornado. . . . . . . . . . . . . .113
Special Precautions for Mobile Home Dwellers. . . . . .114
What to Do During a Tornado Warning . . . . . . . . . .115
Responses After a Tornado . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
Inspecting Buildings for Hidden Wind Damage . . . . . .116
Special Considerations for Agricultural Producers . . .117

Volcanic Eruptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .118
Preparing for a Volcanic Eruption . . . . . . . . . . .119
During a Volcanic Eruption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120
Driving in Heavy Ash Areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121

Winter Storms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122
Preparing for Winter Storms . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123
Special Considerations for Travelers. . . . . . . . . .125
Winterizing Mobile Homes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
Winterizing Residential Buildings . . . . . . . . . . .129
Preparations to Reduce Heat Loss from Buildings . . . .130
What To Do During a Home Power Failure. . . . . . . . .131
Responses to Other Heat Loss Problems . . . . . . . . .134
Protecting Your Hot Water System. . . . . . . . . . . .135
Protecting Your Plumbing System . . . . . . . . . . . .136
Protecting Your Sewage System . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
Protecting Appliances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
Preventing Ice Dams on Eaves. . . . . . . . . . . . . .138
Responses to Take When Caught Outdoors. . . . . . . . .139
Responses If Trapped By a Blizzard. . . . . . . . . . .140
Special Considerations for Agricultural Producers . . .141
Preparing for a Winter Storm . . . . . . . . . . . .141
Providing Windbreaks for Livestock Protection. . . .142
Creating Windbreaks On Your Property . . . . . . . .143
Protecting Livestock During Winter Storms. . . . . .145
Caring for Livestock After a Blizzard. . . . . . . .146
Feeding Cattle After a Blizzard. . . . . . . . . . .146
Feeding Sheep After a Blizzard . . . . . . . . . . .147
Feeding Horses After a Blizzard. . . . . . . . . . .147
Feeding Swine After a Blizzard . . . . . . . . . . .147
Protecting Poultry and Livestock . . . . . . . . . .148
Protecting Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149
Storing Milk and Cream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149
Repairing Ice and Snow Damage to Shrubs and Trees. .150

Subject Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151


General Family Preparedness

General Family Preparedness . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Why Preparedness?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Family Disaster Supply Kit . . . . . . . . . . 2
4-Step Family Preparedness Plan. . . . . . . . 7
Preparing Children for Disaster . . . . . . 10
Special Preparations for People with Disabilities 10
Special Preparations for the Hearing Impaired. . 11
Special Preparations for the Visually Impaired. . 11
Evacuation Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Preparing for Evacuation. . . . . . . . . . 13
Evacuating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Returning Home After the Disaster . . . . . 15
When Disaster Strikes. . . . . . . . . . . 16
The Role of Government After a Disaster . . 16
Emotional Recovery After a Disaster. . . . . 17
Helping Children Cope After a Disaster . . . 18
Food Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 20
Precautions Against Power Outages . . . . . 20
After a Power Outage. . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Tornado and Wind Related Contamination. . . 21
Flooded Food Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Food Safety After a Fire. . . . . . . . . . 23
Insurance and Resources After a Disaster . . . 24
Special Post-Disaster Considerations . . . . . 26
Restoring Flooded Water Systems . . . . . . 26
Disinfecting Wells. . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Disposing of Animal Carcasses . . . . . . . 28
Additional Resources . . . . . . .. . . . . 29

General Family Preparedness

Disasters can affect any part of the United States at any time of the year, swiftly and without warning. Most people don't think of a disaster until it is too late; then they suddenly realize how unprepared they are for the massive changes it makes in their lives. Local officials can be overwhelmed and emergency response personnel may not be able to reach everyone who needs help right away.

Each type of disaster requires clean-up and recovery. The period after a disaster is often very difficult for families, at times as devastating as the disaster itself. Families which are prepared ahead of time can reduce the fear, confusion and losses that come with disaster. They can be ready to evacuate their homes, know what to expect in public shelters and how to provide basic first aid.

Family Disaster Supply Kit

One of the first steps toward preparedness is the creation of a family disaster supply kit. This will help families get through the first few days after a disaster. Public shelter after a disaster may not offer some of the basic necessities. The development of a kit will make a stay in a public shelter more comfortable, should it be necessary. Store the kit in a convenient place known to all family members. Store items in airtight bags or containers. Replenish the kit twice a year.

Include six basic items:

Water (page 2) Food (page 3) First Aid Kit (page 4) Tools and Supplies (page 5) Clothing and Bedding (page 6) Special Items (page 6)

1. Water

Store water in clean plastic containers such as thoroughly washed and rinsed soft drink bottles with tight fitting screw-on caps.

Store 1 gallon per day per family member (2 quarts for drinking, 2 quarts for food preparation/ sanitation). Children, nursing mothers and ill people will need more. A 3-day supply of water should be stored for every family member.

Replace water every 6 months.

2. Food

Store at least a 3-day supply of non-perishable food. Select foods that require no refrigeration, preparation or cooking and little or no water. If you must heat food, pack a can of sterno. Rotate these foods into the regular diet frequently to keep the supply fresh. In a disaster supply kit include:

Ready-to-eat canned meats, fruits and vegetables

Canned juices, milk, soup (if powdered, store extra water)

Staples such as sugar, salt, pepper High energy foods such as peanut butter, jelly, crackers, granola bars, trail mix

Vitamins, infant food and food for special diets

Comfort/stress foods such as cookies, hard candy, instant coffee, tea bags

3. First Aid Kit

Assemble a first aid kit for the home and one for each vehicle. An approved American Red Cross kit may be purchased, or one may be assembled with the following items:

Sterile adhesive bandages in assorted sizes

2-inch and 4-inch sterile gauze pads (4-6 of each)

Hypoallergenic adhesive tape

Triangular bandages (3)

2-inch and 3-inch sterile roller bandages (3 rolls each)

Scissors

Tweezers

Needle

Moistened towelettes

Antiseptic

Thermometer Tongue blades (2)

Sunscreen

Tube of petroleum jelly or other lubricant

Assorted sizes of safety pins

Cleansing agent/soap

Latex gloves (2 pairs)

Non-prescription drugs

Aspirin or nonaspirin pain reliever

Anti-diarrhea medication

Antacid (for stomach upset)

Syrup of Ipecac (use to induce vomiting if advised by the Poison Control Center)

Laxative

Activated charcoal (use if advised by the Poison Control Center)

4. Tools and Supplies

Various tools and supplies may be needed for temporary repairs or personal needs. Include these items in your disaster supply kit:

Battery operated radio and extra batteries

Flashlight and extra batteries

Non-electric can opener, utility knife

Map of the area (for locating shelters)

Cash or traveler's checks, change

Fire extinguisher: small canister, ABC type

Tube tent

Pliers

Tape

Compass

Matches in waterproof container

Aluminum foil

Plastic storage containers

Signal flare Paper, pencil

Needles, thread

Medicine dropper

Shut-off wrench, to turn off household gas and water

Whistle

Plastic sheeting

Mess kits or paper cups, plates and plastic utensils

Emergency preparedness manual

Sanitation

Toilet paper

Soap, liquid detergent

Feminine hygiene supplies

Personal hygiene items

Plastic garbage bags, ties (for personal sanitation uses)

Plastic bucket with tight lid

Disinfectant

Household chlorine bleach

5. Clothing and Bedding

Your disaster supply kit should include at least one complete change of clothing and footwear per person. Items to include are:

Sturdy shoes or work boots

Rain gear Blankets or sleeping bags

Hat and gloves

Thermal underwear

Sunglasses

6. Special Items

Family members may have special needs. Other items you may add to your kit include:

For Babies:

Formula

Diapers

Bottles

Powdered milk

Medications

For Adults:

Heart and high blood pressure medication

Insulin

Prescription drugs

Denture needs

Contact lenses and supplies

Extra pair of eye glasses Entertainment

Games and books

Important Family Documents:

Keep these in a waterproof, portable container.

Wills, insurance policies, contracts, deeds, stocks and bonds

Passports, social security cards, immunization records

Bank account numbers

Credit card account numbers and companies

Inventory of valuable goods, important telephone numbers

Family records (birth, marriage, death certificates)

4-Step Family Preparedness Plan

In addition to your family disaster supply kit, develop a family preparedness plan. This plan needs to be known to all family members. A basic preparedness plan has four steps: Do your homework (page 7) Create a family disaster plan (page 8) Make a checklist and periodically update it (page 8) Practice and maintain your plan (page 9)

1. Do your homework

Find out what disasters could happen in your area. Contact your local emergency management or civil defense office and American Red Cross chapter to:

Learn which disasters are possible where you live and how these disasters might affect your family.

Request information on how to prepare and respond to each potential disaster.

Learn about your community's warning signals, what they sound like, what they mean and what actions you should take when they are activated. Learn about local, state or federal assistance plans.

Find out about the emergency response plan for your workplace, your children's school or day-care center, as well as other places where your family spends time.

Develop a list of important telephone numbers (doctor, work, school, relatives) and keep it in a prominent place in your home.

Ask about animal care. Pets may not be allowed inside shelters because of health regulations.

2. Create a family disaster plan

Discuss with your family the need to prepare for disaster. Explain the danger of fire, severe weather (tornadoes, hurricanes) and floods to children. Develop a plan to share responsibilities and how to work together as a team.

Discuss the types of disasters that are most likely to occur and how to respond.

Establish meeting places inside and outside your home, as well as outside the neighborhood. Make sure everyone knows when and how to contact each other if separated. Decide on the best escape routes from your home. Identify two ways out of each room.

Plan how to take care of your pets.

Establish a family contact out-of-town (friend or relative). Call this person after the disaster to let them know where you are and if you are okay. Make sure everyone knows the contact's phone number.

Learn what to do if you are advised to evacuate.

3. Make a checklist and periodically update it

Post emergency telephone numbers by phones (fire, police, ambulance, etc.).

Teach your children how and when to call 911 or your local EMS number for help.

Show each family member how to turn off the water, gas and electricity at the main valves or switches.

Teach each family member how to use a fire extinguisher (ABC type) and have a central place to keep it. Check it each year.

Install smoke detectors on each level of your home, especially near bedrooms. Conduct a home hazard hunt.

Stock emergency supplies and assemble a disaster supply kit.

Learn basic first aid. At the very least, each family member should know CPR, how to help someone who is choking and first aid for severe bleeding and shock. The Red Cross offers basic training of this nature.

Identify safe places in your home to go for each type of disaster.

Check to be sure you have adequate insurance coverage.

4. Practice and maintain your plan

Test children's knowledge of the plan every 6 months so they remember what to do.

Conduct fire and emergency evacuation drills. Replace stored water and food every 6 months.

Test your smoke detectors monthly and change the batteries once a year.

And... In conjunction with the preparedness plan, working with neighbors can save lives and property. Meet with neighbors to plan how the neighborhood could work together after a disaster until help arrives. Members of a neighborhood organization, such as a home association or crime watch group, can introduce disaster preparedness as a new activity.

Know your neighbors' special skills (medical, technical) and consider how to help neighbors who have special needs, such as disabled and elderly persons. Make plans for child care in case parents can't get home.

Preparing Children for Disaster

As you develop your preparedness plan, include children in the planning process. Teach your children how to recognize danger signals. Make sure they know what smoke detectors and other alarms sound like. Make sure they know how and when to call for help. If you live in a 9-1-1 service area, tell your child to call 9-1-1. If not, check your telephone directory for the number. Keep all emergency numbers posted by the phone. Help your children to memorize important family information. They should memorize their family name, phone number and address. They also should know where to meet in case of an emergency. If children are not old enough to memorize the information, they should carry a small index card to give to an adult or babysitter that lists the emergency information.

Special Preparations for People with Disabilities

People with disabilities may need to take additional steps to prepare for disaster. If you are disabled or know someone who is, the following precautions should be taken.

Ask about special assistance that may be available to you in an emergency. Many communities ask people with disabilities to register, usually with the fire department or emergency management office, so needed help can be provided quickly in an emergency.

If you currently use a personal care attendant obtained from an agency, check to see if the agency has special provisions for emergencies (e.g. providing services at another location should an evacuation be ordered).

Determine what you will need to do for each type of emergency. For example, most people head for a basement when there is a tornado warning, but most basements are not wheelchair accessible. Determine in advance what your alternative shelter will be and how you will get there. Learn what to do in case of power outages and personal injuries. Know how to connect or start a back-up power supply for essential medical equipment.

If you or someone in your household uses a wheelchair, make more than one exit from your home wheelchair accessible in case the primary exit is blocked.

Consider getting a medic alert system that will allow you to call for help if you are immobilized in an emergency.

Store back-up equipment, such as a manual wheelchair, at a neighbor's home, school or your workplace.

Avoid possible hazards by fastening shelves to the wall and placing large, heavy objects on the lower shelves or near the wall. Also hang pictures or mirrors away from beds. Bolt large pictures or mirrors to the wall. Secure water heaters by strapping them to a nearby wall.

Special Preparations for the Hearing Impaired

Deaf or hearing impaired individuals will have a more difficult time communicating after a disaster. People may not realize you can't hear warning signals and instructions, and may leave you behind. If there is a power failure, your teletypewriter will be useless, and communicating in the dark will require a flashlight. To avoid potential problems you should:

Make sure you have a flashlight, pad and pencil by your bed at home. Ask a neighbor to be your source of information as it comes over the radio.

Remind co-workers that you can't hear an evacuation order.

If you are trapped in a room, knock on the door or hit objects together to let others know you are there.

Special Preparations for the Visually Impaired

Blind or visually impaired individuals will have a difficult time after a disaster if surroundings have been greatly disrupted. In addition, seeing eye dogs may be too frightened or injured to be reliable. Have an extra cane at home and work, even if you have a seeing eye dog. If you are trapped, make noise to alert others. Also keep in mind that, if electricity fails, blind people can assist sighted people and potentially save lives.

Evacuation Procedures

Evacuations during a disaster are a common event. Evacuation procedures vary by location and disaster. Contact your local emergency management or civil defense office for specific evacuation plans.

The amount of time you will have to evacuate depends on the disaster. Some disasters, such as hurricanes, may allow several days to prepare. Hazardous materials accidents may only allow moments to leave. This means that preparation is essential since there may not be time to collect the basic necessities.

Evacuations can last for several days. During this time you may be responsible for part or all of your own food, clothing and other supplies.

Preparing for Evacuation (page 13)

Evacuating (page 14)

Returning Home After the Disaster (page 15)

Preparing for Evacuation

Advance planning will make evacuation procedures easier. First, you should have your family disaster supply kit and plan ready. Additional steps that can aid preparedness include:

1. Review possible evacuation procedures with your family.

Ask a friend or relative outside your area to be the check-in contact so that everyone in the family can call that person to say they are safe.

Find out where children will be sent if they are in school when an evacuation is announced.

2. Plan now where you would go if you had to evacuate.

Consider the homes of relatives or friends who live nearby, but outside the area of potential disaster. Contact the local emergency management office for community evacuation plans. Review public information to identify reception areas and shelter areas.

3. Keep fuel in your car's gas tank at all times.

During emergencies, filling stations may be closed. Never store extra fuel in the garage.

4. If you do not have a car or other vehicle, make transportation arrangements with friends, neighbors or your local emergency management office.

5. Know where and how to shut off electricity, gas and water at main switches and valves.

Make sure you have the tools you need to do this (usually pipe and crescent or adjustable wrenches). Check with your local utilities for instructions.

Evacuating

When you are told to evacuate there are four steps you need to take:

1. If there is time, secure your house.

Unplug appliances.

In a flood hazard area, store propane tanks or secure them safely to the structure.

Turn off the main water valve.

Take any actions needed to prevent damage to water pipes by freezing weather, if this is a threat. Securely close and lock all doors, windows and garage.

2. Follow recommended evacuation routes. Do not take shortcuts, they may be blocked.

3. Listen to the radio for emergency shelter information.

4. Carry your family disaster supply kit.

Returning Home After the Disaster

1. Do not return until the local authorities say it is safe.

2. Continue listening to the radio for information and instructions.

3. Use extreme caution when entering or working in buildings structures may have been damaged or weakened. Watch for poisonous snakes in flooded structures and debris.

4. Do not take lanterns, torches or any kind of flame into a damaged building.

There may be leaking gas or other flammable materials present. Use battery-operated flashlights for light. If you suspect a gas leak, do not use any kind of light. The light itself could cause an explosion.

5. If you smell leaking gas, turn off the main gas valve at the meter. If you can open windows safely, do so.

Do not turn on lights they can produce sparks that may ignite the gas. Leave the house immediately and notify the gas company or the fire department.

Do not reenter the house until an authorized person tells you it is safe to do so.

6. Notify the power company or fire department if you see fallen or damaged electrical wires.

7. If any of your appliances are wet, turn off the main electrical power switch in your home before you unplug them.

Dry out appliances, wall switches and sockets before you plug them in again. Call utility companies for assistance.

8. Check food and water supplies for contamination and spoilage before using them.

9. Wear sturdy shoes when walking through broken glass or debris, and use heavy gloves when removing debris.

10. After the emergency is over, telephone your family and friends to tell them you are safe.

When Disaster Strikes

Hopefully you will never have to experience disaster. When it does happen, however, try to remain calm and patient and put your family preparedness plan into action. You should follow the following steps:

Retrieve your disaster supply kit.

Wear protective clothing and sturdy shoes.

Confine or secure pets to protect them.

Go to the safe place in your home you identified and stay there until well after the disaster is over.

Listen to your battery-powered radio for news and instructions.

Evacuate, if advised to do so.

The Role of Government After a Disaster

After a preliminary damage assessment report has been completed, the governor of a state can request a major disaster or emergency declaration from the president.

Declaration of an Emergency. The president can issue a Declaration of Emergency to supplement the state and local effort to save lives and protect property. The president can act only after a state governor has requested a Declaration of an Emergency be issued. Total assistance provided in any given emergency declaration may not exceed $5 million. Declaration of a Major Disaster. A major disaster declaration may be requested by the governor to the president after a natural catastrophe occurs. Assistance is offered to both the public and private sectors. With the declaration, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) has the authority to engage the services of 12 federal departments, two agencies, one commission, one corporation and one authority offering 97 different Federal assistance programs. These 97 programs provide many different services to help people and state and local governments deal with recovery from a disaster. A listing of the main agencies that provide assistance can be found in General Family Preparedness, Insurance and Resources After a Disaster.

Emotional Recovery After a Disaster

In addition to the physical damage a disaster brings, stress and emotional disequilibrium need to be addressed by victims. Steps you can take to reduce the effects of a disaster include:

Be extra patient.

Keep in mind that other people may have a different viewpoint about what should be top priority.

Realize that it will take time to restore things, both physically and emotionally.

Try to keep your family diet as nutritious as possible.

Focus on the big picture instead of the little details. This will give you a sense of completeness.

Talk with friends, family and clergy. A support network is essential in a disaster situation.

Watch for the tendency to resort to bad habits when you are under stress.

If you are dealing with disaster victims, realize that it's natural for them to express disbelief, sadness, anger, anxiety and depression. Also realize that these emotions and moods can change unexpectedly.

Helping Children Cope After a Disaster

Children may require special attention after experiencing a disaster. Four common fears children have are death, darkness, animals and abandonment. In a disaster children may experience any or all of these. You should encourage children to talk about what they are feeling and to express this through play, drawing or painting.

A child's reaction to a disaster may vary depending on age, maturity and previous experience. In all cases it is important to acknowledge what happened and take time to talk with children about their fears.

Some behaviors you may find children exhibiting after a disaster include:

Being upset at the loss of a favorite toy, blanket, teddy bear, etc.

Hitting, throwing or kicking to show their anger and frustration.

Fear of the disaster coming again.

Fear of being left alone or sleeping alone. They may want to sleep with another person.

Behaving as they did when they were younger, including wetting the bed, sucking their thumb, wanting to be held, etc.

Exhibiting symptoms of illness such as nausea, fever, headaches, not wanting to eat, etc.

Becoming quiet and withdrawn. Becoming easily upset.

Feeling that they caused the disaster in some way.

Feeling neglected by parents who are busy cleaning up or rebuilding.

Refusing to go to school or to be out of the parent's sight.

Parents and other adults can help children come to terms with their feelings in several ways.

Let children know you love them and they can count on you. Reassure them that they are not responsible for what occurred.

Talk with your children about your own feelings.

Give simple, accurate answers to children's questions.

Hold them. Close contact assures children you are there for them and will not abandon them.

Let children grieve for a lost toy or blanket that was special to them. It will help them cope with their feelings.

Provide play experiences to relieve stress.

Repeat assurances and information as often as you need to; do not stop responding.

Spend extra time putting children to bed at night.

Listen to what children say. Repeat their words to clarify what they are feeling. If additional help is needed for adults or children, contact a community resource such as a counseling center, minister or mental health agency.

Food Safety

Food safety precautions can make an important difference after a disaster occurs. Food can become contaminated as a result of fire, flood and wind related exposure. It also may spoil or become unsafe after a power outage.

Precautions Against Power Outages

If your area comes under an advisory that may lead to prolonged power outages (hurricanes, prolonged flooding, etc.) take these steps to help keep your food safe:

Turn your refrigerator and freezer to the coldest setting. This will help the food stay frozen. Purchase a 50-pound block of dry ice. This will keep food in a full 18 cubic foot freezer safe for 2 days. Wrap it in brown paper for longer storage. Separate it from direct food contact with a piece of cardboard.

Fill partially filled freezers with crumpled newspaper to reduce air currents which will dissipate dry ice.

After a Power Outage

If you should lose power, the emergency food supplies in your family disaster supply kit will be safe. Food in the refrigerator and freezer may be in trouble.

Generally, food in a refrigerator will be safe if the power is not out longer than a few hours and the temperature has been at 40øF or below. Food in a full, free-standing freezer should be safe for about 2 days if the temperature was at 0øF or below. Food in a half-full freezer should be safe for about 1 day if the temperature was at 0øF or below. To prolong the life of your food the following measures should be taken. Group meat and poultry to one side, or on a tray, so their juices won't contaminate other foods if they begin to thaw.

Be wary of using meat, poultry and foods containing milk, cream, sour cream or soft cheese.

Don't rely on odor or appearance of food. If perishable food has been at room temperature for more than 2 hours, discard it.

In emergency conditions, the following foods should keep at room temperature (above 40øF) a few days. Discard anything that turns moldy or has an unusual odor or look.

Butter, margarine

Fresh fruits and vegetables

Dried fruits and coconut

Opened jars of salad dressing, peanut butter, jelly, relish, taco sauce, barbecue sauce, mustard, catsup, olives

Hard and processed cheeses

Fruit juices

Fresh herbs and spices

Flour and nuts

Fruit pies

Bread, rolls, cakes and muffins Discard the following foods if kept for more than 2 hours above 40øF.

Raw or cooked meat, poultry and seafood

Milk, cream, yogurt, soft cheese

Cooked pasta, pasta salads

Custard, chiffon or cheese pies

Fresh eggs, egg substitutes

Meat topped pizzas, lunchmeats

Casseroles, stews or soups

Mayonnaise and tartar sauce

Refrigerator and cookie doughs

Cream filled pastries

Refreeze thawed foods that still contain ice crystals or feel cold.

Tornado and Wind Related Contamination

If you live in an area that has sustained tornado or wind damage, take the following measures.

Drink only approved or chlorinated water.

Consider all water from wells, cisterns and other delivery systems in the disaster area unsafe until tested. Check foods and discard any containing particles of glass or slivers of other debris.

Discard canned foods with broken seams.

Flooded Food Recovery

Flood waters may carry contaminants such as silt, raw sewage or chemical waste. Disease bacteria in the water also can contaminate any food it touches. If you have experienced flood conditions, follow these guidelines:

Save undamaged commercially canned foods (except as noted later). Do not use home-canned foods that have been covered with flood water. Commercial glass jars of food are safe if the containers are sanitized (except as noted later). Remove the labels from jars and cans and mark the contents on can or jar lid with indelible ink. Paper can harbor dangerous bacteria. To sanitize jars, cans, dishes and glassware, wash in a strong detergent solution with a scrub brush. After washing, immerse them in a solution of 2 teaspoons chlorine bleach per gallon of room temperature water. Air dry before using. If needed, clean empty glass also may be sanitized by boiling in water for 10 minutes. To sanitize metal pans and utensils, boil in water for 10 minutes. Discard wooden and plastic utensils, baby nipples, pacifiers and any other porous nonfood items that are used with food. Discard the following foods:

Meat, poultry, fish and eggs

Fresh produce

Preserves sealed with paraffin

Unopened jars with waxed cardboard seals such as mayonnaise and salad dressing

All foods in cardboard boxes, paper, foil, cellophane or cloth

Spices, seasonings and extracts

Home-canned foods

Opened containers and packages

Flour, grain, sugar, coffee and other staples in canisters

Dented, leaking, bulging or rusted cans

Food Safety After a Fire

Food that has been exposed to fire can be affected by three factors: the heat of the fire; smoke fumes; and the chemicals used to fight the fire

Food in cans or jars that have been close to the heat of the fire may appear to be unharmed, but the heat from the fire can activate food spoilage bacteria, leaving them inedible.

Burning materials may release toxic fumes that contaminate food. Discard any type of food stored in permeable packaging such as cardboard or plastic wrap. Discard raw food outside the refrigerator. Food in refrigerators and freezers also may be contaminated. The seal on these appliances is not completely airtight. Discard any food with an off-flavor or smell. The chemicals used to fight fires contain toxic material that can contaminate food and cookware. Throw away foods exposed to the chemicals. Chemicals cannot be washed off the food. This includes foods stored at room temperature, as well as foods stored in permeable containers such as cardboard and screw-topped jars and bottles.

Sanitize canned goods and cookware in the same method as recommended for flooded foods.

Insurance and Resources After a Disaster

Most homeowner policies offer coverage for losses due to natural disasters except flooding. If you are unsure what your policy covers, check it before a disaster happens. Contact your agent for clarification if you are still unsure. In general most insurance policies cover:

Your house, rental units that are part of the building and any attachments to the building, such as the garage.

Structures on the grounds that are not attached to the house, such as a pool, gazebo, tool shed, etc. This also includes the lawn, trees and shrubs on the property.

Vacant land you own or rent, with the exception of farmland.

Cemetery plots or burial vaults you may own.

Personal possessions, including those of members of your household and guests, and contents of the house. This does not include the possessions of tenants in your home.

Any items that have been loaned to you, or given for safe keeping.

Living expense if your home is unlivable due to damage.

Rental payments, if you rent one part of your house but it is unlivable due to damage.

Responsibility for unauthorized use of your credit cards, forged checks or counterfeit currency accepted in good faith.

Settlement, medical expenses and court costs brought against you for bodily injury of others or damage to the property of others.

Most homeowner policies DO NOT cover loss due to flooding. You should check to see if your community participates in the National Flood Insurance Program.

(continued on next page) If you need financial assistance, programs are available. Programs include:

The American Red Cross...offers emergency assistance for groceries, new clothes, medical needs and immediate building repairs.

Farmers Home Administration(FmHA)...offers agricultural loans only when other credit is not available. Qualifying farmers can get short-, medium- or long-term loans with moderate interest.

Federal Crop Insurance Corporation (FCIC)...Farmers can insure crops for 50, 65 or 75 percent of yield. Unavoidable losses due to any adverse weather conditions including drought, excessive moisture, hail, wind, hurricanes, tornadoes and lightning are covered. Unavoidable losses due to insect infestations, plant diseases, floods, fires and earthquakes also are covered. You must have this insurance prior to the disaster.

Small Business Administration (SBA)...offers medium- and long-term loans for rebuilding non-farm homes and small businesses with moderate interest rates.

Commercial and federal land banks offer loans for home repair and improvement, land, equipment and livestock. Insurance companies offer long-term loans at relatively high interest for the same things. Assistance also may be available through a variety of state or local agencies and volunteer groups. Listen to your battery operated radio after a disaster for information on disaster relief services and locations.

Non-financial resources also are available to many disaster victims. Technical assistance is available from:

The Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service (ASCS)...for information on livestock and wildlife feeding, production and conservation practices.

The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS)...offers technical assistance on animal and plant pests and diseases.

Extension Service-USDA...offers information, educational material and advice on cleanup.

The Food Safety Inspection Service (FSIS)...can be reached toll free at (800) 535-4555 for questions on the safe handling of meat and poultry.

Special Post-Disaster Considerations

Restoring Flooded Water Systems

1. Do not start submerged electric motors until they have been cleaned, dried and checked for safety.

Disconnect the motor. An ejector or jet pump motor may be a separate unit mounted on the pump, or the end bell of the motor may be part of the pump. The separate motor unit can be disconnected and serviced easily. With the second type, remove the pump and motor as a unit. It is not necessary to remove the drop pipes.

Take the motor to an electrical repair shop. In the shop, the motor should be checked for any short circuits or grounding caused by moisture. If the motor was submerged in mud and water, it should be thoroughly cleaned. Windings should be dried in a drying oven. The bearings should be lubricated before you use the motor again.

Clean and dry electrical controls and pressure switches. Check all wiring for short circuits.

2. Pumps usually are damaged by sediment deposited in the bearings.

Clean pumps. Check valves for silt and sand. Remove all dirt and water from the gears in the gear box and replace the lubricant with fresh oil.

Submersible pumps. The bearings on water-lubricated pumps will not be damaged by flood waters, since these bearings are constantly submerged in water. As soon as possible, flush clean water down the casing to remove sediment and silt. Then disinfect the well.

Centrifugal pumps. Many centrifugal pumps contain two sets of oil-lubricated bearings along the drive shaft between the motor and the pump. If the pump has been flooded, dismantle the container bracket and remove the bearings.

Clean the bearings, or install new bearings if the old ones are worn out.

Close-coupled centrifugal pumps contain no bearings, so there is little chance of flood damage except to the electric motor.

3. Injector-type pumps.

These pumps usually contain watertight packing at the ground surface, with sealed impellers. Flood waters probably will not damage this type of pump.

4. The storage tank and piping should be all right unless muddy water was pumped through it.

If tank is contaminated, disinfect the entire system with a strong chlorine solution. Use 1 quart household laundry bleach or check with local health department for recommended solution strength.

Open all faucets while the system is being filled. Do not close the spigot until a definite smell of chlorine is evident. Do not use the system for 24 hours. Then start the pump and run water from all faucets until the chlorine odor is gone.

5. Wells probably will not be damaged structurally from floods, but they may be contaminated.

Have your well tested by health officials before you use the water.

6. If the well is located in a low spot, it may be contaminated with silt from floodwaters draining into it. If so, the well and entire water system should be disinfected. To disinfect the well system:

Pump the well until water is clear.

Pour a solution of 1 quart liquid laundry bleach (Clorox , Purex , Hilex or a similar hypochlorite solution) mixed in 3 gallons of water into the well casing. Leave it there at least 4 hours, or preferably overnight.

Pump the chlorinated water into the piping system, and leave it there for at least 2 hours or even overnight.

The next day, pump and flush out the system until the taste and odor of chlorine are no longer apparent. Two days after you have disinfected the water system take a sample of water according to recommended procedures and have it tested for purity. Boil or treat all drinking water until a water test indicates that water is safe for all purposes.

7. Do not drink water from a flooded cistern until you disinfect the cistern and the entire piping system. To disinfect the cistern:

Use an auxiliary pump to remove the water and empty the cistern. Do not pump water through the pipeline distribution system.

Wash down the walls and ceiling with clean water, and pump out the dirty water with an auxiliary pump.

Check the cistern walls, ceiling and floor for cracks where groundwater could come in.

Disinfect the interior with a solution of 1 quart laundry bleach in 3 gallons of water. Be sure the bleach contains no soap. Apply the chlorine solution with a sprayer or scrub with a stiff broom.

Swab or pump out the disinfecting solution that collects in the bottom of the cistern.

Leave the chlorine solution in the pipes for at least 2 hours (overnight if possible) before you drain them.

Fill the cistern with water for use. This water will have a chlorine taste for awhile, but it will be safe for all purposes.

8. Regenerate water softeners before you use them. Use clean chlorinated water to backwash the filterbed.

Disinfecting Wells

Disinfect flooded wells before they are used as a source of drinking water. To disinfect a well:

1. Scrub the pumproom and wash all equipment, including piping, pump and pressure tank.

2. Remove the well seal at the top of the casing.

Pour a solution of 1 quart laundry bleach and 3 gallons of water into the top of the well. Pour the solution so it washes down the inside of the casing and the outside of the drop pipes. In some wells you will need only to remove a plug from the seal to pour the solution into the well.

3. Leave the solution in the well about 4 hours. Then pump it into the pressure tank and distribution system.

4. Draw the chlorinated water into all piping by opening each faucet until the odor of chlorine is apparent.

Leave the chlorine in the piping at least 2 hours. Then run the water until the taste and odor are no longer objectionable.

Disposing of Animal Carcasses

1. Prompt and sanitary disposal of animal carcasses is necessary to protect the living animals in an area from disease.

2. Search all pastures for dead animals as soon as possible.

Carcasses may have some commercial value, so send them to a rendering plant if possible.

3. If rendering is impractical, dispose of the dead animals on the premises. Use the following procedure:

Immediately after finding a carcass, cover it with crude oil or kerosene to keep away dogs, buzzards and vermin. Fat swine are the only animal carcasses that will burn satisfactorily. Used railroad ties can be used as starters.

Bury other carcasses. Use power equipment if it is available. Choose a site where subsurface drainage will not reach water supplies.

Bury the carcasses at least 3 to 4 feet deep so predatory animals won't be able to reach them. If quicklime is available, cover carcasses with it before filling. Quicklime will hasten decomposition.

Additional Resources

For further information on disaster preparedness or recovery, the following resources are suggested:

Small Business Administration 1-800-827-5722

Contact your local American Red Cross chapter or write to FEMA, P.O. Box 70274, Washington, D.C. 20024 for the following information:

Your Family Disaster Supplies Kit. Federal Emergency Management Agency brochure L-189 and American Red Cross brochure 4463, March 1992.

Your Family Disaster Plan. Federal Emergency Management Agency brochure L-191 and American Red Cross brochure 4466, September 1991.

Emergency Preparedness Checklist. Federal Emergency Management Agency and American Red Cross brochure 44471, November 1991.

Helping Children Cope with Disaster. Federal Emergency Management Agency and American Red Cross brochure 4499, September 1992.

Preparing for Emergencies: A Checklist for People with Mobility Problems. Federal Emergency Management Agency brochure L-154(M) and American Red Cross brochure 4497, October 1992.

The following are available from the Federal Emergency Management Agency:

Preparedness for People with Disabilities. Earthquake Hazard Reduction Series 9, FEMA 75.

Are You Ready? H-34, Item #8-0908.

Drought

Drought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Water Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Water Conservation at Home . . . . . . . . . . 31
Reading a Water Meter To Measure Leaks . . . . 34
Installing a Low-Flow Showerhead . . . . . . . 34
Installing Shower Flow Restrictors . . . . . . 34
Installing Toilet Dams . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Water Saving Steps When Remodeling . . . . . . 36
Making Repairs To Toilets To Stop Water Loss . 36
Repairing Faucet Leaks . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Adding New Landscape Or Redesigning The Yard . 39
Landscape Water Conservation . . . . . . . . . 40
Watering Lawns and Plants During a Drought . . 44
Special Considerations for Agricultural Producers 45
Developing a Crop Water Management Plan . . 45
Crop Water Requirements and Water Use Efficiencies 46
Developing and Improving Vegetative Cover . 48
Maintaining Vegetative Cover. . . . . . . . 49
Managing Salinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Drought

Water Conservation

Water conservation is defined as the efficient use of water so that unnecessary or wasteful uses are eliminated. In many areas, more groundwater is drawn out of the aquifers each year than is recharged through rainfall and stream flow. As a result, groundwater levels have dropped dramatically. Demand for water from a state's streams and reservoirs may rapidly approach the available long-term supply. Across many states, many communities are regularly required to limit water use at some time during the year.

While some additional water supplies can be developed by constructing new reservoirs, in many locations the demand for water will still equal or exceed the available long-term supply. For these towns and cities, water conservation can make the difference between adequate supplies and shortages. Importantly, the way water is used and, in some instances, wasted must be rethought.

This section explains easy ways that water can be conserved and money can be saved at the same time. Useful information is also provided on how to measure home water use, how simple repairs can be made, and how water-saving devices are installed. In addition to the measures found in this section, also refer to the General Family Preparedness section found at the beginning of this handbook.

Water Conservation at Home

There are dozens of ways to conserve water and save money around the home. As a starting point, seven of the easiest ways to reduce water use at home are listed below. These should be part of your everyday routine, not just precautionary measures in times of drought.

1. Install a water-saving showerhead.

An effective water-saving showerhead should have a flow rate of 3 gallons or less a minute. The standard showerhead uses 5 to 10 gallons a minute. Therefore, a showerhead using only 2« gallons a minute can save as much as 75 gallons of water during a normal 10-minute shower.

To determine whether a low-flow showerhead needs to be installed, check the flow rate of the current showerhead by using the water meter or by putting a gallon container under the showerhead while the water is on and measuring the time it takes to fill the container at the usual shower setting. If it fills in less than 20 seconds, the flow is greater than 3 gallons per minute.

Low-flow showerheads can be purchased at most department, hardware and plumbing stores.

Models costing from under $3 are available. A showerhead can usually be installed in 10 minutes.

2. Place displacement devices in the toilet.

Three types of displacement devices can be used in toilets, but they should not be used in newer, low-water use toilets which use less than 3« gallons per flush.

To determine the capacity of the toilet tank, either turn off the water supply valve to the toilet (usually located on the pipe behind the toilet) or hold the float ball up so that the tank does not refill, and flush the toilet. Measure the capacity of the tank by filling it to the normal level with a gallon container.

Toilet dams can be installed in toilet tanks to reduce the amount of water used, typically saving « to 2 gallons per flush. Toilet dams are available from many utilities or from most plumbing supply stores from under $5 per pair.

A plastic bottle filled with water and weighted down with a few stones can accomplish the same purpose as dams. It is important to place the bottle in the toilet tank where it will not interfere with the flushing mechanism. A plastic bottle in the tank will save « to 1 gallon per flush.

A toilet bag which is available free of charge from many utilities, can also be used in place of dams. A displacement bag in the tank will save « to 1 gallon per flush.

Bricks should not be used in the tank because small pieces can break off and permanently damage the plumbing system.

3. Install faucet aerators.

The standard faucet flow rate is 5 gallons a minute. A low-flow aerator can reduce this flow to ap- proximately 2« gallons a minute while still providing adequate water for washing and rinsing. Installing aerators on the kitchen sink and lavatory faucets will save hot water and cut water use by as much as 60 gallons a month for a typical family of four.

Most aerators have either internal or external threads. Before purchasing aerators, the location of the threads and the diameter of each spout should be determined.

If the faucet already has a standard aerator (not a low-flow type), it can be removed and taken to the store to ensure that the correct low-flow size is purchased. Aerators are available for less than a dollar from most stores that sell plumbing fixtures.

If the kitchen has a portable dishwasher that must be connected to the faucet, do not install a low-flow aerator because the reduced flow may affect the performance of the dishwasher and result in dishes that are not properly cleaned.

4. Change your water use patterns.

The washing machine and dish- washer should only be used when fully loaded. This practice can save at least two loads or approximately 60 gallons each week.

5. Examine personal water use habits.

Changing tooth brushing habits can save as much as 14 gallons of water a day. Instead of allowing the tap water to run while brushing, use a cup, and run the tap just to rinse the toothbrush.

The same method can be used to conserve additional water when shaving, washing hands or taking a shower.

Use a pan when washing vegetables or rinsing dishes in the kitchen instead of running water constantly.

6. Find water leaks.

According to water utilities, leaks can easily account for 10 percent of a water bill and waste both water and energy if the source is a hot water tap.

Toilet Leaks. When a toilet leaks, water escapes from the tank into the bowl. Toilets are notorious for hidden or silent leaks, because leaks are seldom noticed unless the toilet "runs" after each flush (which can waste 4 to 5 gallons a minute).

To determine if the toilet is leaking, look first at the toilet bowl after the tank has stopped filling. If water is still running into the bowl or if water can be heard running, the toilet is leaking.

Often the toilet may have a "silent leak." To test for a silent leak, mix a few drops of food coloring or place a dye capsule or tablet (available from many utilities and hardware stores) into the water in the toilet tank after the water has stopped filling and the tank is full. Do Not flush the toilet. Wait for about 10 minutes, and if the dye or food coloring appears in the toilet bowl, the toilet has a silent leak.

Leaks of this type usually are caused by a defective flush valve (flapper) ball or a corroded or scaled valve seat. Replacement balls and valves, which can be installed in less than 30 minutes, are available from most hardware and plumbing stores for under $3.

Faucet Leaks. Faucet leaks are obvious. However, periodically check seldom used taps in the basement or outside the house. The cause of faucet leaks is frequently a worn washer that can be replaced with two or three hand tools. Replacement washers can be purchased from most hardware and variety stores and cost only a few cents.

7. Use efficient outside watering practices.

Plant native vegetation. Once established, which usually takes two years, these plants require less frequent watering. Water grass only when needed. If grass springs up after being walked on, it does not need watering.

Soak grass long enough for water to reach the roots. Water slowly and deeply.

Water during the cool, early morning hours to minimize water loss by evaporation and discourage disease. Do not water on windy days.

Use sprinklers that produce droplets instead of mist and that have a low trajectory. This type of sprinkler will lose less water by evaporation and be less affected by the wind.

Use drip irrigation systems for shrubs, flowerbeds and other frequently watered areas.

During the summer, keep the grass about 2 to 3 inches high. This height shades the root system and holds soil moisture better than does a closely clipped lawn.

Do not water streets and sidewalks. Adjust the hose or sprinkler until it waters just the grass or shrubs. For flowerbeds, shrubs and trees, use drip or soaker systems.

Reading a Water Meter To Measure Leaks

If your house has a water meter, the entire plumbing system can be checked for an undetected leak in five easy steps:

1. Find the water meter. (It may be outdoors or hidden in a dark corner of the basement.)

2. Turn off all running water and water-using appliances, and do not flush the toilet.

3. Read the dial (or dials) and record the reading.

4. After 15 to 20 minutes, re-check the meter.

5. If no water has been turned on or used and the reading has changed, a leak is occurring. The rate (gallons per minute) of the leak can be determined by dividing the number of gallons by the elapsed time.

6. If the leak cannot be found and fixed, a plumber should be called. Before calling, check all toilets for silent leaks.

Installing a Low-Flow Showerhead To Conserve Water

1. In some cases, a newly purchased low-flow showerhead may not fit on the existing pipe. This is often the case when the neck ends in a ball joint.

Most necks can be unscrewed and replaced, or an adaptor can be used. Adapters or replacement necks are readily available in plumbing and most hardware stores.

2. When installing the new showerhead, Teflon tape or pipe joint compound could be applied to the exposed threads of the new neck so that the joint will be sealed and provide a leakproof connection.

3. If the shower neck has been on for a few years and the neck joint is too stiff to unscrew with moderate pressure, consider having a plumber replace it.

Installing Shower Flow Restrictors to Conserve Water

Restricting devices fit into the space between the showerhead and the shower neck. These devices range from a simple washer with a small hole in it to small chrome-plated pressure compensating fittings. While restrictors reduce water flow, low-flow showerheads produce a flow that is more satisfying to most individuals.

Installing Toilet Dams, Toilet Bags and Plastic Bottles to Conserve Water

Many of the toilets in homes today use from 5 to 7 gallons per flush. Several effective retrofit devices are available that can reduce the volume of water used with each flush by 2 to 3 gallons.

While these devices can be used in some of the low-flush toilets on the market today that use from 3 to 4 gallons per flush, they generally perform better when used in the older 5- to 7-gallon per flush models.

The height of water in the toilet tank (not just the volume) causes the bowl to flush, so the purpose of displacement devices is to reduce the volume of water used in each flush without affecting water height in the tank. The following three types of devices have proven to be effective.

1. Toilet Dams:

To install a dam, flex or bend the dam and insert it into the tank.

The dam should fit tightly against the tank sides and bottom and should curve outward away from the plumbing fixtures in the tank. Most tanks work best when a single dam is used.

2. Toilet Bags:

Fill the bag with water, securely seal the top of the bag with the bag clamp and hang the bag in the tank by using the bag clip and hanger that are provided.

Make sure the bag is located in the tank so it does not interfere with the operation of the toilet tank.

3. Plastic Bottles:

Fill a plastic bottle with water and weight down with a few stones, and place in the most open portion of the tank. This will save as much water as is displaced by the bottle.

Make sure the bottle does not interfere with the operation of the moving parts of the tank.

Check all such devices periodically to ensure that they remain in place.

Water Saving Steps When Remodeling or Replacing Fixtures and Appliances

1. Hot Water Pipes.

Where possible, insulate hot water pipes from the hot water heater to fixtures and appliances. This will reduce the time between turning the water on and the time hot water comes out of the faucet and reaches a constant temperature.

2. New or Replacement Fixtures and Appliances.

Install low-water use fixtures when remodeling or replacing fixtures.

Install toilets that use 3« gallons or less per flush. Install low-flow showerheads that flow at 3 gallons or less per minute.

Install water-saving dishwashing and clothes-washing machines. Be sure to check the water efficiency of appliances when shopping for replacement appliances.

3. Pools and Hot Tubs.

Run the filter backwash onto the lawn rather than down the sewer.

Purchase covers for hot tubs and pool to reduce evaporation losses.

Making Repairs To Toilets To Stop Water Loss

Some types of toilet leaks are relatively easy to fix. Other leaks may require the services of a plumber. Several simple repair steps that can be done without contacting a plumber are listed below.

1. If the water is too high in the toilet tank and is spilling into the overflow tube, the float can be adjusted by turning the adjustment screw or by very gently bending the float arm down so that the water shuts off at a level slightly below the top of the overflow tube.

Ideally, the water level should be set so that it is about even with the fill line on the back of the toilet tank.

2. A frequent problem that causes a toilet to leak is a worn flapper ball or a flapper ball that does not seat properly into the valve seat. If the flapper ball is worn, it can be removed and replaced with a new flapper ball.

When replacing a flapper ball, take care to note how the chain is adjusted before the old ball is removed. Also, check the valve seat for scale or corrosion and clean if necessary. If cleaning does not work, install a retrofit valve seat, available from most plumbing or hardware stores.

3. If the handle needs to be jiggled to keep the toilet from "running," the guide-wire or the handle itself may be sticking. If the handle is sticking, adjust the nut that secures it in the toilet tank. If that does not work, replace the handle.

4. If none of the preceding steps solve the problem, contact a plumber to repair the toilet.

Repairing Faucet Leaks

1. Leaky faucets, which can develop even in new houses, are wasteful and a nuisance. With a few simple tools, a leaky faucet can be repaired in less than an hour.

2. Most water faucets in houses today are compression-type units in which a washer is compressed over a pipe opening when the faucet is closed, thus closing off the water.

All compression-type faucets may not look alike, but all are similar in their operation and repair.

3. The exact point where a leak appears on a faucet is a good clue to finding its cause:

A spout drip is usually caused by a worn upper faucet washer or a corroded seat.

Leaks at the stem result from a loose cap nut or worn cone or bonnet packing.

A cap leak, or water oozing below the cap nut, indicates a worn bib or packing washer.

A leak at the base of the faucet results from water seeping past a worn lower faucet washer.

4. To repair a leaky compression type faucet, use the following steps:

Turn off the water supply at the valve nearest the faucet. Next, open the tap to drain the faucet.

Remove the handle screw and lift handle off the spindle. Unscrew the cap nut. Use a protective cover of adhesive tape or a rag to avoid marring the finish.

Unscrew the stem with finger pressure and lift it out.

Remove the screw from the bottom end of the spindle. Scrape away all worn washer parts. Be careful not to damage the rim. Install a new washer. (Take either the old washer or the complete spindle unit with you to purchase the correct size and shape (flat or conical) replacement washer.) Double-check to make sure the replacement is like the worn washer.

Check the seat (which is located down inside the faucet) to make sure it is not pitted or rough. If the seat is scarred or rough, use a seat-dressing kit to grind the seat to a smooth finish.

A leak at the stem usually means that the packing inside the cap nut needs replacing. To replace the packing, pry out the old packing washer with a screwdriver. If a washer is used, replace it with a new one. If there is no washer, wrap the spindle tightly with "packing wicking." String can be used if commercial wicking is not available.

Reassemble the faucet. Tighten the cap nut just enough to prevent leaking. Screwing the nut down too tightly causes rapid wear on the stem.

Turn the shutoff valves to the on position and check the faucet for leaks.

5. A mixing faucet may look more complicated than a single faucet, but repairs are made in much the same way.

Actually, a mixing faucet is two separate units with a single spout.

Mixing faucets are used on sinks, bathtubs and laundry tubs. Repairs must be made separately on each faucet unit. Follow the same steps listed above, but remember to turn off the water before beginning work.

6. Every washerless and single-lever faucet model is a little different. When repairs are required, homeowners can purchase a repair kit for their model which includes instructions and the parts that generally will be worn. By replacing all the parts at once, the faucet should function for several years without needing further repair.

Adding New Landscape Or Redesigning The Yard To Conserve Water

When planning to add new landscaping or to redesign existing landscaping, the following suggestions may help you to save 50 percent or more of the water needed to maintain a traditional lawn.

1. If hiring a landscape architect or gardener, select one who is experienced in Xeriscape, the conservation of water and energy through creative landscaping.

2. Design the yard to reduce the grassed areas to only that amount which will actually be used for recreation and entertainment. Front and side yards are most frequently just for show and are logical areas that can be completely or partially converted from lawns to native grasses, ground covers and shrubs.

3. Use native grasses, ground covers, shrubs and trees. Many beautiful varieties of native species can be used in landscaping and are preferable to imported species.

The advantage of native species is that, once they are established (usually about 2 years), they do not need to be watered as frequently (about to « as often), and they can survive a dry period without any watering.

4. When installing an irrigation system for lawn, shrubs and trees, sprinkler heads for the lawn should be low-angle spray heads that sprinkle the grass without spraying the water high into the air or allowing the water to drift onto the sidewalks and streets. The heads should produce droplets of water instead of a mist. The preferable irrigation system for shrub beds and trees is a drip-type system. There are several varieties, including soaker hoses, bubblers and "leaky pipe."

If a sprinkler system is installed for shrubs, an upright pipe extension may be needed if low-angle spray heads are to be used. This is done to spray evenly without obstructions.

Automatic controls will allow the proper watering time and minimize waste.

Regular spacing between spray heads will provide uniform coverage.

For more information, contact a licensed landscape irrigator or a reputable dealer.

5. Shape the soil to protect against erosion and use conditioners to promote water penetration and retention.

Shape the soil into earthen basins around all shrubs.

If the original soil is rocky, shallow or a heavy clay, improve the soil by adding 2 to 4 inches of organic material or topsoil that is compatible with the soil type.

6. Watering needs vary:

Plants: During summer month, most plants will need about 1 inch of water every 5 to 7 days.

Lawns: The frequency of watering depends on the type of grass.

A water conscious landscape design can reduce water use for landscape maintenance by 50 percent or more and also reduce the amount of maintenance required. Of equal importance, the natural beauty and function of the landscape also can be preserved by using adapted plant materials.

1. By using plant materials adapted to specific areas, water needs for landscape maintenance can be reduced by more than 50 percent.

Water conscious landscaping involves more than just using adapted plant materials it includes the use of other conservation techniques and practices.

Water saving practices include the use of low pressure drip or trickle irrigation systems for watering trees, shrubs, gardens and individual plants or beds; the use of mulches around shrubs, beds and gardens to conserve water; the use of bark, rock or other landscape material in ground cover in areas difficult to water or in areas where plants are not needed; the use of vegetative groundcovers such as ivy, jasmine, liriope and vinca in small, isolated areas, sloping sites that are difficult to water and in heavily shaded sites.

2. Water conscious landscape designs minimize intensively maintained lawn space. Manicured lawn areas may be the focal point of the landscape, but they do not need to cover the entire area unless the lawn is used as a playground or sports field. Highly maintained grass areas generally require more irrigation than any other component of the landscape. On golf courses, for example, only the landing areas need to be intensively maintained. Rough areas may have a more drought tolerant grass, taller mowing heights and a separate water system.

Large open areas of the landscape where a grass cover is needed can be planted to low maintenance grasses such as buffalograss, centipede grass or bahiagrass. Native plants and wildflowers also can be allowed to develop in these areas.

Such plantings require very little maintenance and no supplemental water once they become established.

3. Proper site preparation will produce a more beautiful landscape and result in more efficient water utilization.

Slopes, areas with shallow topsoil, compacted soils and deep sands are difficult sites to establish grass and are inefficient with respect to water use.

Modifying or amending the sites before planting is more effective than waiting until problems develop.

4. As the foundation is the strength of a building, the seedbed is the support for a turf. The seedbed refers to the few surface inches of soil that are modified prior to planting.

Poor soil conditions result in continuous turf maintenance problems.

To prepare a seedbed, first remove all debris such as large stones, wood or other trash that may have been left after construction.

Next, the nature of the soil may need to be altered. A sandy loam soil high in organic matter is best for turf. If the original surface soil is a heavy clay or a fine sand, add organic matter to improve soil structure. This organic material can be peat, compost, decomposed gin trash, rice hulls, bark or sawdust (preferably hardwood), leaf mold or similar material. Thoroughly mix 1 inch of organic matter with the top 3 to 4 inches of soil to produce a uniform seedbed.

This mixing can be done by repeated cultivation with a garden tiller or with a tractor and rotovator.

When adding un-decomposed organic matter to the soil, also add 3 pounds of ammonium nitrate or 5 pounds of ammonium sulfate per 1,000 square feet to aid decomposition of the organic material. Most soils are deficient in the major nutrients required for turf. Sandy soils normally are deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and lime. In the blackland areas, nitrogen and phosphorus may not be adequate for good turf development. Potassium in the soil may become deficient for turf growth when high amounts of nitrogen are used in areas not normally deficient in potassium.

If possible, base rates and combinations of fertilizer nutrients on the results of soil tests. In the absence of a soil test, apply a complete fertilizer to the surface of the seedbed. Apply a fertilizer with a 1-2-1 (10-20-10, 6-12-6) or 1 (8-8-8) ratio at a rate to supply 1 pound of phosphorus per 1,000 square feet of lawn.

Grade the seedbed to provide surface drainage away from structures, walks and driveways. A fall of 6 inches for every 40 to 50 surface feet is adequate for drainage on sandy soils, provided no pockets or depressions exist.

Clay or clay loam soils may require twice that slope to provide adequate surface drainage. In some cases, subsurface drainage systems may be needed to remove excess water from poorly drained sites.

If a considerable part of the landscape needs to be filled, use a loam or sandy loam soil. Repeated wetting of the filled site will help settle the soil.

The final step in seedbed preparation is raking the surface to remove large clods and stones. At the same time, fill depressions that have developed and level high spots. Walks and driveways should be about 1 inch above the final soil surface. The site is now ready to be seeded, sprigged or sodded.

5. Conservation and reduced maintenance costs are enhanced by good cultural practices. By some estimates as much as 50 percent of the water used for landscape maintenance is wasted through run-off and evaporation.

Proper timing and method of application will reduce much of this water loss.

The most important water conserving practice is to water only when grasses show symptoms of water stress.

Grasses wilt and begin to go off color when under moisture stress. Shrubs and small trees wilt and begin to drop their leaves under moisture stress. Ideally, water shrubs before the first sign of moisture stress.

When water is needed, thoroughly wet the soil 4 to 6 inches deep by applying water slowly or at intervals to avoid run-off. One inch of water, properly applied, will wet most soils 4 to 6 inches deep. (One inch of water is equivalent to 62 gallons per 100 square feet.) During summer months an inch of water will meet most plant needs for 4 or 5 days. But wait until the plants (or grass) show moisture stress before watering again. Early morning dew, cooler temperatures or rain may extend the interval between irrigations several days.

6. Mowing is the key to maintaining neat, attractive turf areas. Low maintenance grasses such as buffalograss require less mowing than bermudagrass or St. Augustine. But regular mowing will improve the density and uniformity of all turf areas.

During the growing season, weekly mowing is ideal for lawn areas. When mowed weekly, there is seldom a need to pick up grass clippings. The clippings break down rapidly in the lawn and recycle plant nutrients. When clippings are picked up, they can be composted or used for mulch in gardens.

During hot, dry conditions raise mowing heights to reduce water needs. Grass mowed at 2 to 3 inches maintains a deeper root system than grass mowed at 1 inch. Supplemental water needs are reduced with more effective use of water in the soil by deep rooted grasses. Mow St. Augustine, bluegrass and tall fescue lawns at 3 inches during drought conditions. Do not mow bermudagrass and zoysia higher than 2 inches.

7. Thatch, the organic layer between the soil and the green leaves, can slow water movement into the soil and cause excess run-off.

Thatch accumulation results from heavy fertilization, improper mowing practices, over watering and frequent pesticide use.

Aeration and thatch removal increase water penetration and reduce run-off. Under some conditions wetting agents (surfactants) improve water penetration in a heavily thatched lawn.

Water movement into the root zone is even more difficult where compaction develops. Aeration of compacted soils once or twice a year helps break up the compacted layer and increases water penetration. Aeration also reduces run-off from sloping sites. 8. In soils containing high levels of sodium salts, gypsum can aid water penetration. Soil test information available through county Extension agents can reveal the presence of high levels of sodium. Like the other three factors affecting water use, the quality of the water used can influence the amount of water needed to keep a turf healthy.

Where salt is a problem, it is important to thoroughly wet the soil during each application. Light, frequent applications of water high in salts result in an accumulation of salts near the surface. Thorough watering helps move the salts below the root zone of grasses.

Watering Lawns and Plants During a Drought

1. If water is rationed during a drought, give priority to shrubs that are more expensive and harder to replace than grass and annual plants.

2. During a severe drought when outside watering is prohibited, water plants with "gray water" saved from bathing, dishwashing and clothes washing, if this is permitted by the city or local health department.

Special Considerations for Agricultural Producers

In addition to the precautions and responses covered in the previous pages, the agricultural producer will want to consider the following measures.

Developing a Crop Water Management Plan

Develop a water management system before you are faced with a drought situation.

1. Water Use Efficiency

In areas where water supply is limited or expensive, it is economically important for farmers to attain high water use efficiency as well as high yields. Water use efficiency values can be calculated in several ways and should be clearly defined to avoid misinterpretation.

Water use efficiency for a crop and irrigation system can be expressed as crop yield (pounds) per unit of water applied to or actually used by the crop (acre-inches).

2. Rainfall Patterns

Average monthly rainfall data can be misleading because large variations occur. Therefore, percent probability that a certain rainfall amount will occur is a better way of assessing risk.

Dryland crops should be grown during periods of high rainfall probabilities to allow more of the rainfall to be used for evapotranspiration.

Crop Water Requirements and Water Use Efficiencies

Experimental results for yield and water use efficiency have varied, but many common water management principles have emerged and are receiving widespread application by farmers. Limited irrigation is now being widely practiced on drought tolerant crops to take advantage of expected rainfall.

1. Sorghum

Sorghum has good ability to adjust to water stress. Sorghum requires 13 to 24 inches of seasonal water use (evapotranspiration) from precipitation, stored soil moisture and irrigation to achieve grain yields of 3,000 to 6,700 pounds per acre.

Dryland sorghum yields an average of about 1,600 pounds per acre, although yields of up to 3,000 pounds per acre are not uncommon during high rainfall years.

Pre-plant irrigation is often not needed and may be inefficiently applied, especially when using conventional graded furrow irrigation systems.

The same amount of water may be more efficiently used if applied at later stages of crop growth.

Conservation tillage can reduce the need for pre-plant irrigation of sorghum through improved soil moisture storage.

Irrigations should be timed to avoid water stress during periods of peak water use (boot, heading and flowering stages) to achieve reasonably good yields and maximum irrigation water use efficiency.

Two well-timed seasonal irrigations of 4 inches per application or the equivalent are adequate in normal years for good yields of medium maturity hybrids. Saving irrigation water by withholding a 4-inch irrigation reduces sorghum grain yields by only about 10 percent during the early 6- to 8-leaf stage but by almost 50 percent if withheld at the heading and bloom stage.

2. Corn

Corn is much more sensitive to water stress than sorghum, wheat or cotton. Corn is planted earlier than sorghum and typically allows more efficient use of the May-June wet season than sorghum.

The early planting date required for corn increases the need for pre-plant irrigation for stand establishment. The total seasonal water use to achieve any corn grain yield is about 13 inches.

Pre-plant irrigation is often necessary. Drought seasons require one or two additional irrigations.

Moisture stress caused by low soil water availability or hot, dry conditions during the flowering stage (which includes tasseling, silking and pollination) can severely restrict corn yield.

Reduced irrigation of corn has generally resulted in significant yield decreases. Planned water deficits into the stress range are not recommended and may be feasible only on soils with moderate to high water storage and during the early vegetative or grain ripening stages.

Reduced acreage, rather than reduced irrigation, offers the best way to adjust corn irrigation to limited water supplies.

3. Wheat

Winter wheat is a major drought-tolerant crop that grows vegetatively during the normal dry period from fall to early spring and develops grain during a period of increasing spring rainfall. Wheat is normally planted around October 1 and requires available soil moisture from irrigation or precipitation for germination and early growth.

Wheat also should receive one late fall irrigation followed by two to three spring irrigations for high grain yields. One additional early irrigation (together with additional applied fertilizer) is usually needed for early planted wheat that is grazed and also managed for grain production.

The highest wheat yield response to irrigation usually occurs during jointing and boot stages. These stages also coincide with a period of relatively low probability of rainfall.

The least efficient irrigation is during grain filling, which normally is associated with increased rainfall.

4. Cotton

Cotton is a drought-tolerant, long-season crop that lends itself to limited irrigation despite a somewhat complicated pattern of water use, deficits and application.

Early fruit set is important in cotton production. However, the production, placement and retention of fruiting sites are sensitive to soil water availability.

Under dryland conditions, expected lint yields are in the range of 250 to 300 pounds per acre. Cotton requires more than 13 inches of seasonal water use to produce appreciable lint yields.

High levels of water application can decrease lint yield by causing excessive vegetative development and fall immaturity.

A pre-plant irrigation of 4 inches is usually advantageous, especially if spring rainfall is not adequate, but heavier pre-plant irrigations are not warranted.

Cotton has the ability to overcome moisture stress at most growth stages if water becomes available and low temperatures do not limit growth.

The most critical period for irrigation is early to mid-bloom. If water is available, a second irrigation should be applied at peak to late bloom.

Developing and Improving Vegetative Cover

1. Good cover (standing vegetation and mulch) lessens the impact of rain that dislodges soil particles, and thus reduces the amount of sediment in surface run-off. Good cover also slows the movement of run-off so that more water soaks into the soil and more sediment is deposited on the grazing land rather than being carried into streams or ponds. Vegetative cover also entraps manure and prevents pollution of streams with animal waste.

2. Best management practices for preventing nonpoint source pollution from grazing lands include locating animal holding pens and feeding areas away from streams and other hydrologically sensitive areas, and establishing and maintaining good vegetative cover.

3. The amount and type of vegetation present significantly influence the rate of infiltration of water. Standing vegetation and a mulch or litter layer increase infiltration. Organic matter in the surface soil improves soil aggregation, making it easier for water to move through the soil.

4. Pores in the soil created by plant roots increase the rate at which water can enter the soil by providing pathways for water movement. Long-lived, perennial bunchgrasses have deeper root systems than sodgrasses and allow water to move deeper.

5. The height of grass also affects water movement. Water moves more rapidly across closely grazed grass than grasses left with several inches of stubble.

6. If the watershed has been severely overgrazed, the vegetative cover will need to be improved by controlling undesirable plants such as broadleaf weeds and shrubs and/or seeding desirable plants.

Maintaining Vegetative Cover

1. If at least 10 to 15 percent of the desirable vegetation is present, the most practical and economical way to maintain a desirable vegetative cover is through proper grazing management.

The key to proper grazing management is to balance the number of grazing animals with the forage produced. The proper balance will leave a sufficient amount of plant residue to maintain stored food reserves, plant vigor, a healthy root system and seed production of the desired plants.

It also allows seedlings to become established.

2. For planning purposes, an appropriate long-term stocking rate may be determined based on the "take half and leave half" rule of thumb. However, a more realistic approach is to manage the grazing stocking rate so that a given amount of residue is left prior to resumption of growth in the spring.

The amount of residue required will vary according to the area of the state and the vegetation types. For example, 300 pounds of plant residue may be adequate for a semi-arid area with short-grass vegetation, while 1,200 pounds of residue may be required in a more humid area with tall-grass vegetation.

3. It also is important to properly distribute animals over the grazing land. Poor distribution may result in extreme overgrazing of one area and little use of another in the same unit. Often these overgrazed areas are located near water, thus increasing the potential for pollution.

Practices which contribute to proper grazing distribution include the development and strategic placement of water sources, construction of fences, strategic location of salt and feeding sites, building of trails, fertilization, prescribed burning and spot seeding.

4. Plants benefit from periods of no grazing. Deferment from grazing is particularly useful on areas where vegetation needs to be improved.

5. Planned grazing systems divide an area into two or more grazing units to allow periods of grazing and rest from grazing in a sequence determined by management objectives, physiological needs of the plants and the design of the system.

Grazing systems may include as few as 2 or as many as 30 or more grazing units.

Some temporary soil compaction may occur with systems that concentrate animals in a small area for short periods of time. However, if the period is short, the soil will recover rapidly from the compaction. A planned grazing system makes more effective use of forage and, combined with the proper stocking rate, protects desirable range plants and water quality.

Managing Salinity

Salinity problems normally occur in arid or semi-arid climatic regions. Salinity is a major nonpoint source pollutant in the west as irrigation return flows can carry dissolved salts into waterways. In humid climates, soluble salts are generally leached downward through the soil profile where they cannot cause problems.

In general, accumulation of salt results from water evaporation at the soil surface. This condition can render land vegetatively nonproductive, and may lead to nonpoint source pollution through erosion and sedimentation. Further, the salt concentration may run off during a storm and affect adjacent lands. These problems normally occur where either surface seep areas appear or where a high water table exists in the soil profile.

Sometimes rainfall moves through the ground to the water table or to a barrier above the water table. Here it accumulates and moves laterally, often parallel with the land slope, toward an outlet or low point in the landscape. It then forms a wet weather or saline seep. During the summer or periods of low rainfall, such seepage spots may completely dry out. Only detailed analyses of borings, soils and surveys can establish the source and amount of groundwater contributing to seep areas.

1. Irrigated land in arid areas sometimes must be drained to prevent or reduce salinity problems. Topographic surveys and subsurface investigations should be made to obtain information on the soils, geology and water table elevations. These data are the basis for determining the extent of the problem and for setting design parameters. 2. Plant nutrients and pesticides should be applied in such a manner as to limit the potential for contamination of surface and groundwater supplies by outflow from drainage systems.

3. One alternative treatment is to establish permanent salt tolerant species such as bermudagrass, aikali sacaton, gramas and kleingrass. Salt tolerant species will allow a vegetative cover where bare ground would otherwise lead to water quality problems.

4. Cropping with salt tolerant, seasonal species such as cotton or small grains assists in addressing the problem of saline soils. Planting high water use crops such as alfalfa, four-wing saltbush or trees above a seep area helps control the amount of moisture that accumulates.

5. Organic or inorganic additives to the soil surface will increase water infiltration. This will allow water to force dissolved salts below the root zones and prevent further concentration of salts on the soil surface.

Organic amendments include cotton burs and gin "trash" that may be obtained from cotton processing facilities.

Inorganic agents to increase soil tilth include gypsum or calcium sulfate.

6. Land alterations are sometimes used to alleviate salinity problems. Such constructed systems have a place in salinity control, but use caution when implementing them. In some cases, altering the land surface by smoothing or grading may eliminate the effects of the problem by confining the seep area or providing natural surface drainage.

Practices such as closed-end terraces or basin terraces which impound water can be used on areas with minimal seepage, but should be scrutinized where they might contribute to problems associated with saline seeps. When seeps threaten downstream water quality, installing a fresh water interceptor drain above the seep may be an alternative treatment.

7. Drainage may be used in severe cases of salinity. The location of a suitable outlet and the quality of discharge and receiving waters is crucial in considering either a surface or subsurface drain. Surface drainage can be accomplished by several methods, depending on the conditions at the site.

A surface drainage system may be the least expensive alternative, but potential maintenance problems and obstructions to farming operations should be considered. Maintaining water quality of any discharge waters is of utmost importance. Most subsurface drainage uses corrugated plastic tubing installed with a synthetic filter envelope. Again, as with any other drainage system, an adequate outlet is imperative, especially considering the discharge water quality in comparison to receiving waters.

8. Irrigation water management is important on saline soils. Salt accumulates in soils because of salts in irrigation water or the presence of a high water table. To prevent harmful accumulation of salts in soils irrigated with saline water, an additional quantity of water, above that required for the crop, must be passed through the root zone to leach salt from the soil.

A high water table contributes to salt accumulation because capillary action causes water and soluble salts to rise to the soil surface. There the water evaporates, leaving behind salt deposits. Enough water must be applied periodically to leach out accumulated salts without excessive waste of water. If a seep area could be made worse by applying liquid agricultural waste, proper management must be used, including nutrient management.

Earthquakes

Earthquakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
How Earthquakes are Measured . . . . . . . . . 52
Preparing for an Earthquake. . . . . . . . . . 53
During an Earthquake . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Responses Inside Buildings During an Earthquake 55
Responses if You are Outside During an Earthquake 55
After an Earthquake. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Special Considerations for Agricultural Producers 57

Earthquakes

The crust of the earth is made up of seven masses called tectonic plates. They are in steady motion. Accumulated stress builds up from the continental plates grinding, sliding or colliding against or slipping under each other. Pressure is released in a powerful explosion of energy that fractures the earth's surface, shakes the ground, causes the ground to roll, liquefies some soil and generates giant water waves.

When an earthquake will unleash its force remains unpredictable. Preliminary cracks may send off foreshocks before a main fracture. These foreshocks can occur months or minutes before the rapid onset of the earthquake. An earthquake lasts for seconds or minutes, while aftershocks may occur for months after the main earthquake.

Powerful and widespread ruptures or shaking ground can cause buildings to move off their foundations or collapse; damage utility lines, other structures and roads; set off fires; and threaten the lives of people and animals. It is the damage to structures that presents the greatest risks to life and property.

Earthquakes create a trigger for other natural hazards such as landslides, tsunamis, avalanches, fires and flash floods.

The greatest likelihood of major earthquakes is in the western United States, particularly along the San Andreas Fault in California and up the Alaskan Coast, in the New Madrid Fault Zone in the Midwest, and in a few pockets on the East Coast, particularly in South Carolina and New England. There is no seasonal or yearly cycle of occurrence. Earthquakes can happen at any time. Major earthquakes appear to occur in cycles of between 50 and 275 years.

How Earthquakes are Measured

The Richter Scale provides a measure of the magnitude of the earthquake in terms of energy released, measured in equivalent tons of TNT. Each unit represents a 10-fold energy release.

An earthquake of Richter 2.5 or less is usually ignored. Dishes rattling and china shaking occur at 3. The Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale is a more subjective accounting or survey of behavior and damage based on observation at the site. Depending on the intensity of ground vibrations, the elasticity of buildings and structures, and how well structures are connected to their foundation, falling or collapsing objects and structures accompany earthquakes. Structural instability, such as dam failures, can trigger flash floods. Fires have been the greatest cause of damage in the past. Offshore earthquakes may cause tsunamis.

Preparing for an Earthquake

In addition to precautions outlined in the sections on General Family Preparedness, Residential Fires and Hazardous Material Accidents, you need to take the following steps.

1. Become familiar with earthquake terms.

Aftershocks: Tremors that occur in the hours or days after the initial earthquake shaking is over.

Epicenter: The place on the surface of the earth directly above an earthquake's first movement (focus).

Fault: A fracture in the earth's crust along which rocks have been displaced.

Focus: The point beneath the surface of the earth where the rocks first break and move, beginning the earthquake.

Intensity: An indication of an earthquake's apparent severity at a specific location, based on its effects on people and structures.

Magnitude: Size of an earthquake determined from the size of the seismic waves it generates as recorded by seismographs.

Mercalli Scale: The scale used to measure the strength of an earth- quake as determined by people's eyewitness observations.

Tidal wave: This is a misnomer for a tsunami. Tidal waves occur from the interaction of the moon and large bodies of water. Waves you see rolling into the ocean shore every day are tidal waves. Tsunami: A seismic sea wave. An unusually large wave (or series of them) produced by an undersea earthquake or volcanic eruption.

2. Safeguard your home by:

Bolting bookshelves, water heaters and cabinets to wall studs.

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