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IN TIME OF EMERGENCY

This government publication has been electronically transcribed by  a volunteer  member of LIVE FREE INTERNATIONAL, the country's  largest  non-profit  survival  education  group,  in order  to  place  basic  emergency information in the hands (and computers) of as many citizens as  possible. Live  Free  International does not necessarily endorse the views of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), and no endorsement by or association with FEMA is claimed or implied by Live Free International.

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Write to them for current prices.

LIVE  FREE INTERNATIONAL publishes a monthly newsletter,  Directions, and  offers a series of papers dealing with various aspects  of  emergency preparedness. We also offer a wide range of activities, including periodic field exercises to teach and practice the skills of emergency preparedness and  self-sufficiency like our annual National Survival Week, held at  our National  Training  Center in Harrisburg, MO. Live Free  membership  costs $20.00 per year, and overseas and life memberships are available.

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IN TIME OF EMERGENCY
a citizen's handbook on
EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT

For additional information contact:
Office of Public Affairs
Federal Emergency Management Agency
  Washington, D.C. 20472
***FEMA Publication H-14***
  Reprinted 1980
  Electronic entry 1991 by J.P. Wieser - Live Free International
P.O. Box 1743 Harvey IL 60426
This is a public domain document.

INTRODUCTION

The  primary  purpose of this handbook, In Time Of Emergency,  is  to save  lives. It is addressed directly to the individual and the family  to provide them with information and guidance on what they can and should  do to  enhance  their survival in the event of nationwide nuclear  attack  or other major disasters.

This  guidance  is general in nature and should  supplement  specific instructions  issued by local governments. Since special conditions  exist in  some communities, local instructions issued by local governments may differ slightly from  this general guidance. In such  cases,  the  local instructions should be followed.

Cities  and  counties in all parts of the country, with  the  aid  of Federal  and  state  governments, have developed  and  are  continuing  to develop civil preparedness programs to reduce the loss of life and protect property  in  the event of major peacetime emergencies and  enemy  attack. Many  lives  have been saved and much suffering has been alleviated  as  a result of these programs. People have been warned of impending storms  and similar  dangers,  told  how to protect  themselves,  sheltered  from  the elements, fed, clothed, treated for injury and illness, and given help in resuming their normal lives.

Part  I (pages viii - 68) is concerned with nuclear attack and  basic preparations to take.

Part II (pages 71 - 98) discusses preparations and emergency  actions that  will  help individuals cope with major  natural  disasters-  floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, winter storms, earthquakes, and tidal waves.

Special  advice  for rural families on emergency actions  related  to crops and livestock is available from the U.S. Department of Agriculture.

PART ONE
NUCLEAR ATTACK

In this uneasy age in which we live, strife abounds in many  troubled parts of the world. The weapons of modern warfare have become increasingly powerful  and numerous. Potential aggressors can deliver nuclear  warheads
accurately on targets up to 8,000 miles away.

Despite  continuing efforts to achieve and maintain peace, a  nuclear attack upon the United States remains a distinct possibility. In the  face of  this  threat,  a strong civil defense is needed  not  only  throughout government, but on the part of the individual and the family. And that  is what  this  first  section is all about- to help the  individual  and  the family prepare for the possibility of nuclear attack.

Much  has been done to prepare for a possible nuclear attack.  Public fallout shelter space has been located for millions. Civil defense systems also  include warning and communication networks, preparations to  measure fallout  radiation, emergency operating centers to direct  lifesaving  and recovery  operations, emergency broadcasting stations,  local  governments organized for emergency operations, and large numbers of citizens  trained in emergency skills.

If  an enemy should threaten to attack the United States,  you  would not be alone. The entire Nation would be mobilizing to repulse the attack, destroy  the  enemy, and hold down our own loss of life.  Much  assistance would  be  available to you- from local, State, and  Federal  governments, from the U.S. Armed Forces units in your area, and from your neighbors and fellow  Americans.  If an attack should come, many lives  would  be  saved through effective emergency preparations and actions.

You  can  give  yourself  and your family a  much  better  chance  of surviving  and recovering from a nuclear attack if you will take time  now to:

-Understand the dangers you would face in an attack.
-Make your own preparations for an attack.
-Learn what actions you should take at the time of an attack.

Every family or individual should give special attention to plan  for shelter. depending upon your location and upon various circumstances,  one of three possible shelter options may be available to you:

1: Seek private shelter at home.
2: Seek public shelter in your own community.
3: Leave your community to seek shelter in a less dangerous area.

Part  I of this handbook contains basic information on the threat  of nuclear attack. This guidance supplements specific instructions issued  by local  governments. Special conditions may exist in some communities,  and instructions  issued  by local governments may differ  slightly  from  the general  guidance in this handbook. In such cases, the local  instructions should be followed.

UNDERSTANDING THE HAZARDS OF NUCLEAR ATTACK

The  first  step  in preparing for a possible nuclear  attack  is  to understand the major hazards you would face if attack should come.

When  a nuclear bomb or missile explodes, the main  effects  produced are  intense light (flash), heat, blast, and radiation. How  strong  these effects  are depends on the size and type of the weapon; how far away  the explosion  is; the weather conditions (sunny or rainy, windy,  or  still); the  terrain (whether the ground is flat or hilly) and the height  of  the explosion (high in the air, or near the ground).

All nuclear explosions cause light, heat, blast, and initial  nuclear radiation, which occur immediately. In addition, explosions that are on or close to the ground would create large quantities of dangerous radioactive fallout  particles, most of which would fall to earth during the first  24 hours.  Explosions  high  in  the air  would  create  smaller radioactive particles,  which  would  not have any real effect on  humans  until  many months or years later, if at all. (These smaller particles would drift  to earth  more slowly, losing much of their radioactivity before  they  reach the ground, and would be spread by the upper winds over vast areas of  the world.) 

DIRECT EFFECTS OF 1 MT. BLAST (SURFACE BURST)
Distance	overpressure in this zone	Damage & Effects
0.24 miles	12 P.S.I.	crater diameter
0.70 miles		maximum fireball radius
1.70 miles		destruction of all but specially designed facilities; 98% of people killed 2% of people injured
3  miles	5 - 12 P.S.I.	severe damage to commercial-type buildings & many fires initiated; 50% of people killed  40% of people injured 10% of people safe
5  miles	2 - 5 P.S.I.	moderate damage to commercial-type buildings, severe damage to small residences & many fires initiated; 5% of people killed 45% of people injured 50% of people safe
7  miles	1 - 2 P.S.I.	light damage to commercial-type buildings, moderate damage to small residences & potential fire spread; 25% of people injured 75% of people safe
7+ miles	0 - 1 P.S.I	potential fire spread; 100% of people safe
NOTE: If  burst is elevated to altitude maximizing the reach of  blast  damage, moderate damage from blast and initial fires on a clear day are  extended from 5 miles to 8 miles.
DIRECT EFFECTS OF 25 MT. BLAST (SURFACE BURST)
0.70 miles	12 P.S.I.	crater diameter
2.50 miles		maximum fireball radius
5 miles		destruction of all but specially designed facilities; 98% of people killed  2% of people injured
8  miles	5 - 12 P.S.I.	severe damage to commercial-type buildings & many fires initiated; 50% of people killed  40% of people injured 10% of people safe
14 miles	2 - 5 P.S.I.	moderate damage to commercial-type buildings, severe damage to small residences & many fires initiated; 5% of people killed  45% of people injured  50% of people safe
22  miles	1 - 2 P.S.I.	light damage to commercial-type buildings, moderate damage to small residences & potential fire spread; 25% of people injured  75% of people safe
22+  miles	0 - 1 P.S.I.	potential fire spread; 100% of people safe
NOTE: If  burst is elevated to altitude maximizing the reach of blast damage, moderate damage from blast and initial fires on a clear day are  extended from 14 miles to 22 miles.

(FEMA graphic transcribed into table by RMSG)

WHAT WOULD HAPPEN TO PEOPLE

In  a nationwide nuclear attack, people close to a nuclear  explosion in  the  area of heavy destruction probably would be killed or seriously injured by the blast, or by the heat or initial nuclear radiation of the nuclear fireball.
People a few miles away- in the "light damage" area of the explosion- would be endangered by the blast and heat, and by fires that the explosion might start. However, it is likely that most of the people in the "light damage" area would  survive these hazards, but they would be further endangered by radioactive fallout.

People who were outside the immediate damage area would not be affected by the blast, heat, or fire. Department of Defense studies  show that  in  any  nuclear attack an enemy might launch against  us,  tens  of
millions  of  Americans would be outside the immediate  damage  areas.  To them-  and  to  the people in the "light damage" areas  who  survived  the blast, heat, and fire- radioactive fallout would be the main danger.

What  would  happen to people in case of nuclear  attack,  therefore, would depend primarily upon their nearness to a nuclear explosion.

TYPE OF PROTECTION NEEDED

People in the areas of heavy destruction would likely need protection from  various  combinations of blast, initial radiation, heat,  fire,  and radioactive fallout. This would call for shelters strong enough to  resist the  blast  pressure,  made of heat-  and  fire-resistant  materials,  and sufficiently  dense or heavy and thick to protect from  initial  radiation and  radioactive  fallout.  Usually, shelters  affording  protection  from blast,  heat,  and  fire would also provide appreciable  protection  from radioactive  fallout.  Although many people in the  "light  damage"  areas would  likely survive the blast. heat, and fire effects, they would  still need  protection from radioactive fallout. By improvising blast  and  heat protection with attendant improvement in fallout protection, the lives  of millions of additional people could be saved.

However, people caught in the area of the fireball would no doubt  be killed.  Therefore,  people living in or near likely target  or  high-risk areas may wish to relocate in safer areas and take fallout shelter  there. (See Chapter 7, "The Relocation Option".) This would be a serious option for many to consider if a period of international tension permitting  time for such relocation should precede a nationwide nuclear attack.

For  those  people outside the immediate damage areas and  for  those relocating  to lower-risk areas prior to an attack,  effective  protective measures can be taken against the danger of radioactive fallout.

WHAT IS FALLOUT?

When  a nuclear weapon explodes near the ground, great quantities  of pulverized  earth and other debris are sucked up into the  nuclear  cloud. There the radioactive gases produced by the explosion condense on and into this debris, producing radioactive fallout particles. Within a short time, these  particles  fall back to earth- the larger ones first,  the  smaller ones  later.  On  the  way down, and after  they  reach  the  ground,  the radioactive particles give off invisible gamma rays- like X-rays- too much of which can kill or injure people. These particles give off most of their radiation  quickly; therefore the first few hours or days after an  attack would be the most dangerous period.

In  dangerously  affected areas the particles themselves  would  look like grains of salt or sand; but the rays they would give off could not be seen  tasted, smelled, or felt. Special instruments would be  required  to detect the rays and measure their intensity.

The  distribution of fallout particles after a nuclear  attack  would depend  on wind currents, weather conditions, and other factors. There  is no  way  of  predicting  in advance what areas of  the  country  would  be affected by fallout, or how soon the particles would fall back to earth at a particular location.

Some  communities  might get a heavy accumulation of  fallout,  while others-  even in the same general area- might get little or none. No  area in the U.S. could be sure of not getting fallout, and it is probable  that some fallout particles would be deposited on most of the country.

Areas close to a nuclear explosion might receive fallout within 15  - 30 minutes. It might take 5 - 10 hours or more for the particles to  drift down on a community 100 or 200 miles away.

Generally, the first 24 hours after fallout began to settle would  be the  most  dangerous  period  to  a  community's  residents.  The  heavier particles  falling during that time would still be highly radioactive  and give off strong rays. The lighter particles falling later would have  lost much of their radiation high in the atmosphere.

FALLOUT CAUSES RADIATION SICKNESS

The  invisible  gamma rays given off by fallout particles  can  cause radiation  sickness-  that  is, illness caused by  physical  and  chemical changes  in  the cells of the body. If a person receives a large  dose  of radiation,  he will die. But if he receives only a small or  medium  dose, his  body will repair itself and he will get well. The same dose  received over a short period of time is more damaging than if it is received over a longer period. Usually, the effects of a given dose of radiation are  more severe in very young and very old persons, and those not in good health.

SHORT-TERM EFFECTS OF RADIATION EXPOSURE

Following  are  estimated short-term effects on  humans  of  external exposure  to gamma radiation from fallout during a period of less  than  1 week.  The total exposure is given in terms of Roentgens (R), a  unit  for measuring the amount of radiation exposure.

No  special clothing can protect people against gamma radiation,  and no  special drugs or chemicals can prevent large doses of  radiation  from causing  damage to the cells of the body. However, antibiotics  and  other medicines are helpful in treating infections that sometimes follow excessive exposure to radiation (which weakens the body's ability to fight infections).

Almost  all  of the radiation that people would absorb  from  fallout particles would come from particles outside their own bodies. Only  simple precautions  would  be necessary to avoid swallowing  the  particles,  and because  of  their  size (like grains of sand)  it  would  be  practically impossible to inhale them.

People  exposed  to fallout radiation do not become  radioactive  and thereby dangerous to other people. Radiation sickness is not contagious or infectious, and one person cannot "catch it" from another person.

PROTECTION IS POSSIBLE

People  can protect themselves against fallout radiation, and have  a good chance of surviving it, by staying inside a fallout shelter. In  most cases,  the  fallout radiation level outside the  shelter  would  decrease rapidly enough to permit people to leave the shelter within a few days.

Even  in  communities  that receive heavy  accumulations  of  fallout particles, people soon might be able to leave shelter for a few minutes or a few hours at a time in order to perform emergency tasks. In most places, it is unlikely that full-time shelter occupancy would be required for more than a week or two.

Information from  trained  radiological  monitors,  using special instruments  to  detect and measure the intensity  of  fallout  radiation, would be used to advise people when it is safe to leave shelter.

MANY KINDS OF FALLOUT SHELTERS

The farther away you are from the fallout particles outside, the less radiation you will receive. Also, the building materials (concrete, brick, lumber,  etc.)  that are between you and the fallout  particles  serve  to absorb many of the gamma rays and keep them from reaching you.

A  fallout shelter, therefore, does not need to be a special type  of building or an underground bunker. It can be any space, provided the walls and  roof  are thick enough to absorb many of the rays given  off  by  the fallout  particles outside, and thus keep dangerous amounts  of  radiation from reaching the people inside the structure.
A  shelter  can  be  the basement or  inner  corridor  of  any  large building;  the basement of a private home; a subway or tunnel; or  even  a backyard trench with some kind of shielding material (heavy lumber, earth, bricks, etc.) serving as a roof.

In addition to protecting people from fallout radiation, most fallout shelters also would provide some limited protection against the blast  and heat effects of nuclear explosions that were not close by.

Chapter  3,  "Fallout Shelters, Public and  Private,"  discusses  the various  types  of  fallout  shelters  that  people  can  use  to  protect themselves in case of nuclear attack.

FOOD AND WATER WOULD BE AVAILABLE AND USABLE

From many studies, the Federal Government has determined that  enough food and water would be available after an attack to sustain our surviving citizens.  However,  temporary food shortages might occur in  some  areas, until food was shipped there from other areas.

Most of the Nation's remaining food supplies would be usable after an attack. Since radiation passing through food does not contaminate it,  the only  danger  would  be the actual swallowing of  fallout  particles  that happened to be on the food itself (or on the can or package containing the food), and these could be wiped or washed off. Reaping, threshing, canning and  other  processing would prevent any dangerous quantities  of  fallout particles  from  getting  into processed foods. If  necessary  to  further protect  the  population,  special  precautions would  be  taken  by  food processors.

Water systems might be affected somewhat by radioactive fallout,  but the  risk  would  be small, especially if a few  simple  precautions  were taken. Water stored in covered containers and water in covered wells would not  be contaminated after an attack, because the fallout particles  could not  get into the water. Even if the containers were not covered (such  as buckets  or bathtubs filled with emergency supplies of water), as long  as they  were indoors it is highly unlikely that fallout particles would  get into them.

Practically  all of the particles that dropped into open  reservoirs, lakes, and streams (or into open containers or wells) would settle to  the bottom.  Any  that  didn't would be removed when the  water  was  filtered before being pumped to containers. A small amount of radioactive  material might remain, but at the most it would be of concern for only a few weeks.

Milk  contamination  from  fallout is not expected to  be  a  serious problem after an attack. If cows graze on contaminated pasture and swallow fallout particles that contain some radioactive elements, their milk might be harmful to the thyroid glands of infants and small children. Therefore, if possible, they should be given canned or powdered milk for a few  weeks if  authorities  say  that  the regular milk  supply  is  contaminated  by radioactive elements.

In  summary, the danger of people receiving harmful doses of  fallout radiation  through  food, water, or milk is very small.  People  suffering from extreme hunger or thirst should not be denied these necessities after an  attack,  even  if the only available supplies  might  contain  fallout particles.

Chapter 2
WARNING

An enemy attack on the United States probably would be preceded by  a period  of international tension or crisis. This crisis period would  help alert all citizens to the possibility of attack.

If  an  attack actually occurs, it is almost  certain  that  incoming enemy  planes  and missiles would be detected by our networks  of  warning stations in time for citizens to get into shelters or at least take cover. This warning time might be as little as 5 - 15 minutes in some situations, or as much as an hour or more in others.

How  you  received  warning of an attack would depend  on  where  you happen  to be at that time. You might hear the warning given on  radio  or television, or even by word-of-mouth. Or your first notice of attack might come from the outdoor warning system in your city, town, or village.

Many U.S. cities and towns have outdoor warning systems, using sirens, whistles, horns, or bells. Although they  have been installed mainly to warn citizens of enemy attack, some local governments also use them in connection with  natural disasters and other peacetime catastrophes.

Different cities and towns are using their outdoor warning systems in different ways. Most local governments, however, have decided to use  a certain signal to warn people of an enemy attack, and  a  different signal to notify them of a peacetime disaster.

THE STANDARD WARNING SIGNALS

The two "standard" signals that have been adopted in most communities are these:

THE ATTACK WARNING SIGNAL. This will be sounded only in case of enemy attack. The signal itself is a 3- to 5-minute wavering sound on the siren, or a series of short blasts on whistles, horns, or other devices, repeated as deemed necessary. The Attack Warning Signal means that an actual enemy attack against the United States has been detected, and that protective action should be taken immediately. This signal has no other meaning, and will be used for no other purpose.

THE  ATTENTION  OR  ALERT  SIGNAL.  This is used by some local governments to get the attention of citizens in a time of threatened or impending natural disaster, or some other peacetime emergency. The signal itself is a 3- to 5- minute steady blast on sirens, whistles, horns, or other devices. In most places, the Attention or Alert signal  means that
the local government wants to broadcast important information on radios or television concerning a peacetime disaster.

WHAT TO DO WHEN SIGNALS SOUND

1.  If you should hear the Attack Warning Signal- unless your local government has instructed you otherwise- go  immediately to a public fallout shelter or to your home fallout shelter. Turn on a radio, tune  it to any local station that is broadcasting,  and listen for official information. Follow whatever instructions are given.
If you are at home and there is no public or private shelter available,  you may be able to improvise some last-minute  protection for yourself and your family by following the suggestions in Chapter  4, "Improvising Fallout Protection."
2. If you should hear the Attention or Alert Signal, turn on a radio or TV set, tune it to any local station, and follow  the official instructions being broadcast.

DON'T USE THE TELEPHONE

Whichever signal is sounding, don't use the telephone to obtain further information and advice about the emergency. Depend on radio and television, since the government will be broadcasting all the information it has available. The telephone lines will be needed for official calls. Help keep them open.

LEARN YOUR COMMUNITY'S SIGNALS NOW

As mentioned before, not all communities in the U.S. have outdoor warning systems, and not all communities with outdoor warning systems have adopted the two "standard" warning signals.

You should therefore find out now from your  local Civil Defense Office what signals are being used in your community; hat they sound like; what they mean; and what actions you should take when you hear them.  Then memorize this information, or write it down on a card to carry with you at all  times. Also, post it in your home. Check at least once each year to see if there are any changes.

IF THERE IS A NUCLEAR FLASH

It is possible- but extremely unlikely- that your first warning of an enemy attack might be the flash of a nuclear explosion in the sky some distance away.  Or there might be a flash after warning had been given, possibly while you were on your way to shelter.

*TAKE COVER INSTANTLY. If there should be a nuclear flash- especially if you are outdoors and feel warmth at the same time- take cover instantly in the best place you can find. By getting inside or under something within a few seconds, you might avoid being seriously burned by the heat or injured by the blast wave of the nuclear explosion. If  the  explosion were some distance away, you might have 5 to 15 seconds before being seriously injured by the heat, and perhaps 15 to 60 seconds before the blast wave arrived. Getting under cover within these time limits might save your life or avoid serious injury. Also, to avoid injuring your eyes, never look at the flash of an explosion or the nuclear fireball.

*WHERE TO TAKE COVER. You could take cover in any kind of a building, a storm cellar or fruit cellar, a subway station, or tunnel; or even in a ditch or culvert alongside the road, a highway underpass, a storm sewer, a cave or outcropping of rock, a pile of heavy materials, a trench or other excavation.  Even getting under a parked automobile, bus or train, or a heavy piece of  furniture, would protect you to some extent. If no cover is available, simply lie down on the ground and curl up. The important  thing is to avoid being burned by the heat, thrown about by the blast, or struck by flying objects.

*BEST POSITION AFTER TAKING COVER. After taking cover you should lie on your side in a curled-up position, and cover your head with your arms and hands. This would give you some additional protection.

*MOVE  TO A FALLOUT SHELTER LATER. If you protected yourself against the blast and heat waves by instantly  taking cover, you could get protection from the radioactive fallout (which would  arrive  later)  by moving to a fallout shelter.

Chapter 3
FALLOUT SHELTERS, PUBLIC AND PRIVATE

After a nuclear attack, fallout particles would drift down on most areas of this country. To protect themselves from the radiation given off by these particles, people in affected areas would have to stay in fallout shelters  for 2 or 3 days to as long as 2 weeks. Many people would go to public fallout shelters, while others- through choice or necessity-  would take refuge in private or home fallout shelters.

IDENTIFYING PUBLIC SHELTERS

Most communities now have public fallout shelters that would protect many of their residents against fallout radiation. Where there are still not enough public shelters to accommodate all citizens, efforts are being made to locate more. In the meantime, local governments plan to make use of the best available shelter.

Most of the existing public shelters are located in larger  buildings and are marked with the standard yellow-and-black fallout shelter  sign. Other  public shelters are in smaller buildings, subways, tunnels, mines and other facilities. These also are marked with shelter signs, or would be marked in a time of emergency.

LEARN THE LOCATIONS OF PUBLIC SHELTERS

An attack might come at any hour of the day or night. Therefore you should find out now the locations of those public  fallout shelters designated by the local government for your use. If no designations have yet been made, learn the locations of public shelters that are nearest to you when you are at home, work, school, or any other place where you spend considerable time.

This advice applies to all members of the  family. Your children especially should be given clear instructions now on where to find a fallout shelter at all times of the day, and told what other actions they should take in case an attack should occur.

A HOME SHELTER MAY SAVE YOUR LIFE

Public fallout shelters usually offer some advantages over home shelters. However, in many places- especially suburban and rural areas- there are few public shelters. If there is none near you now, a home fallout shelter may save your life.

The basements of some homes are usable as family fallout shelters as they now stand, without any alterations or changes-  especially if the house has two or more stories, and its basement is below ground level.

However, most home basements would need some improvements in order to shield their occupants adequately from the radiation given off by fallout particles.  Usually, householders can make these improvements themselves,
with moderate effort and at low cost.

HOW TO MAKE YOUR OWN HOME SHELTER SURVEY

If  you do not have information about the fallout protection of your basement, you may obtain it quickly as follows:
Select the answer in each multiple choice question which most nearly applies to your home. Write the number of points selected in the blank space provided opposite each question. Add the numbers written in the blanks. Write the sum in the blank opposite "TOTAL  POINTS"  and compare your total with the "Shelter Protection" table.

1. How many stories are above the ground level in this house?
( ) One story...............................................11 points_____
( ) One and one-half stories.................................9 points_____
( ) Two stories..............................................6 points_____
( ) Three stories or more....................................3 points_____

2.  What  is the maximum exposure of any basement wall above  the  ground?
(Exclude exterior entrances of 3 feet width or less.)
( ) No basement (skip question 3)...........................15 points_____
( ) 3 feet or more...........................................8 points_____
( ) 2 to 3 feet..............................................3 points_____
( ) 1 to 2 feet..............................................1 point______
( ) less than 1 foot.........................................0 points_____

3. What is the principal material of the basement walls?
( ) Cinder block or concrete block...........................2 points_____
( ) Stone, brick, or poured concrete.........................0 points_____

4. What is the principal material of the first story walls?
( ) Solid brick or stone, concrete...........................3 points_____
( ) Other....................................................0 points_____

5. Is the home attached to or closer than 10 feet to another home or homes
of similar size and construction?
( ) No.......................................................2 points_____
( ) Yes, 1 side..............................................1 point______
( ) Yes, 2 sides.............................................0 points_____
__________________
------------------
  TOTAL POINTS_____
Shelter potential:  Up to 13 points- adequate
14 - 19 points- improvable at low cost
20 or more points- low

Remember, in this type of survey, the lowest number of points means highest degree of fallout shielding.

SHIELDING MATERIAL IS REQUIRED

In setting up any home fallout shelter, the basic aim is to place enough "shielding material" between the people in the  shelter and the fallout particles outside.

Shielding material is any substance that would absorb and deflect the invisible  rays given off by the fallout particles outside the house, and thus reduce the amount of radiation reaching the occupants of the shelter. The  thicker, heavier, or denser the shielding material is, the more it would protect the shelter occupants.

Some radiation protection is provided by the existing, standard walls and ceiling of a basement. But if they are not thick or dense enough, other shielding material will have to be added.

Concrete, bricks, earth, and sand are some of the materials that  are dense or heavy enough to provide fallout  protection.  For comparative purposes, 4 inches of concrete would provide the same shielding density as:

-5 to 6 inches of bricks
-6 inches of sand or gravel may be packed into bags, cartons, boxes,
-7 inches of earth or other containers for easier handling
-8 inches of hollow concrete blocks (6 inches if filled with sand)
-10 inches of water
-14 inches of books or magazines
-18 inches of wood.

HOW TO PREPARE A HOME SHELTER

If there is no public fallout shelter near your home, or if you would prefer to use a family-type shelter in a time  of  attack, you should prepare a home fallout shelter. Here is how to do it:

*A  PERMANENT BASEMENT SHELTER. If your home basement- or one corner of it- is below ground level, your best and easiest action would be to build a fallout shelter there. If you have basic carpentry or masonry skills, you probably could buy the necessary shielding material and do the work yourself in a short time. If you decide to set up one of these shelters,  first get the free plan for it by writing to the U.S.  Army  AG Publications  Center,  Civil  Preparedness Section,  2800  Eastern  Blvd., (Middle  River),  Baltimore, Maryland 21220. In ordering a plan, use the full name shown for it.

The  FEMA sketches of these shelters have necessarily been omitted here, as well as some of the related text. The names of the shelter plans are:

-Ceiling Modification Plan A
-Alternate Ceiling Modification Plan B
-Permanent Concrete Block or Brick Shelter Plan C
-Preplanned Snack Bar Shelter Plan D
-Preplanned Tilt-up Storage Unit Plan E

*A PERMANENT OUTSIDE SHELTER. If your home has no basement, or if you prefer to have a permanent-type home shelter in your yard, you can obtain free construction plans by writing to (the same address.)

-Outside Concrete Shelter, Plan H-12-1
-Aboveground Fallout Shelter, Plan H-12-2 ]
FEMA sketches and explanatory text omitted

Chapter 4
IMPROVISING FALLOUT PROTECTION

If an enemy attack should occur when you are at home, and you have made no advance shelter preparations, you still might be able to improvise a shelter either inside or outside your house. In a time of emergency, the radio broadcasts may tell you whether you have time to improvise a shelter or whether you should take cover immediately.

An improvised shelter probably would not give you as much  protection as  a  permanent  or a preplanned family shelter, but  any  protection  is better than none, and might save your life.

The best place to improvise a shelter would be the basement or  storm cellar, if your home has one.

SHIELDING MATERIAL NEEDED

To  improvise  a shelter you would need shielding materials  such  as those  mentioned  on page 20- concrete blocks, bricks,  sand,  etc.  Other things  could also be used as shielding material, or to support  shielding material, such as:

-House doors that have been taken off their hinges (especially  heavy outside doors).
-Dressers and chests (fill the drawers with sand or earth after  they are  placed  in position, so they won't be too heavy to  carry  and  won't collapse while being carried).
-Trunks, boxes, and cartons (fill them with sand or earth after  they are placed in position).
-Tables and bookcases.
-Books, magazines, and stacks of firewood or lumber.
-Flagstones from outside walks and patios.

IMPROVISING A BASEMENT SHELTER

Here are two ways of improvising fallout protection in the  basement of a home.

Set up a large, sturdy table or workbench in the  corner  of  your basement that is most below ground level.
On the table, pile as much shielding material as it will hold without collapsing. Around the table, place as much  shielding material as possible.

When family members are "inside the shelter"- that  is, under the table- block the opening with other shielding material.

If  you don't have a large table or workbench available- or if more shelter space is needed- place furniture or large appliances in the corner of the basement so they will serve as the "walls" of your shelter.

As a "ceiling" for it, use doors from the house that have been  taken off their hinges. On top of the doors, pile as much shielding material  as they  will support. Stack other shielding material around the "walls" of your shelter.
When all persons are inside the shelter space, block the opening with shielding material.

USING A STORM CELLAR FOR FALLOUT PROTECTION

A  below-ground storm cellar can be used as an improvised fallout shelter, but additional shielding material may be needed to provide adequate protection from fallout radiation.

If  the  existing roof of the storm cellar is made of wood  or  other light  material,  it  should  be covered with one  foot  of  earth  or  an equivalent thickness of other shielding material (see pages 21 and 22) for overhead  shielding  from fallout. More posts or braces may be  needed  to support the extra weight.

After  the roof has been shielded, better protection can be  provided by blocking the entrance way with 8-inch concrete blocks or an  equivalent thickness  of sandbags, bricks, earth, or other shielding material,  after all  the  occupants are inside the shelter. After particles  have  stopped falling, the outside door may be left open to provide further ventilation.

If shielding material is not available for the entrance way,  shelter occupants  should stay as far away from it as possible. They  also  should raise  the outside door of the storm cellar now and then to knock off  any fallout particles that may have collected on it.

USING THE CRAWL SPACE UNDER YOUR HOUSE

Some  homes  without basements have "crawl space" between  the  first floor  and the ground underneath the house. If you have this  space  under your  house- and if the house is set on foundation walls, rather  than  on pillars- you can improvise fallout protection for your family there.

First, get access to the crawl space through the floor or through the outside  foundation  wall. (A trapdoor or other entry could be  made  now, before an emergency occurs.)

As  the location for your shelter, select a crawl-space area that  is under  the  center of the house, as far away from the  outside  foundation walls as possible.

Around the  selected  shelter  area,  place shielding material- preferably  bricks  or blocks, or containers filled with earth-  from  the ground  level  up to the first floor of the house, so that  the  shielding material forms the "walls" of your shelter area. On the floor above, place other shielding material to form a "roof" for the shelter area.

If time permits, dig out more earth and make the shelter area deeper, so that you can stand erect or at least sit up in it.

IMPROVISING AN OUTSIDE SHELTER

If your home has no basement, no storm cellar and no protected  crawl space, here are three ways of improvising fallout protection in your yard.

SHELTER UNDER A HOUSE SLAB

An excellent fallout shelter can be built by excavating under a small portion of the house slab.

First, dig a trench alongside the house, preferably alongside an eave to help keep out rainwater. Once the bottom of the slab foundation wall is reached, dig out a space under the slab. The area can very in size, but it should  not  extend  back more than 4 feet from the outside  edge  of  the foundation wall.

Place  support  shoring under the slab, and pile dirt on top  of  the slab  inside  the  house  to improvise  overhead  shielding  from  fallout radiation.

You  can add to the protection by making a lean-to over the  entrance trench,  using  boards or house doors, covering them with  soil,  and  and covering this with a polyethylene sheet to keep out rainwater.

OUTSIDE TRENCH SHELTER

Dig  an L-shaped trench, about 4 feet deep and 3 feet wide. One  side of  the  L,  which  will be the shelter area, should  be  long  enough  to accommodate  all family members. The other side of the L can  be  shorter, since its purpose is to serve as an entrance-way and to reduce the  amount of radiation getting into the shelter area.
Cover  the entire trench with lumber (or with house doors  that  have been taken off their hinges), except for about 2 feet on the short side of the L, to provide access and ventilation.

On top of the lumber or doors, pile earth 1 to 2 feet high, or  cover them with other shielding material.
If necessary, support or "shore up" the walls of the trench, as  well as the lumber or doors, so they will not collapse.

OUTSIDE LEAN-TO SHELTER

Dig a shallow ditch, 6 inches deep and 6 inches wide, parallel to and 4 feet from the outside wall of your house.
Remove  the heaviest doors from the house. Place the bottoms  of  the doors  in  the ditch (so they won't slip) and lean the doors  against  the wall of the house.

On  the doors, pile 12 to 18 inches of earth or sand. Stack  or  pile other shielding material at the sides of the doors, and also on the  other side of the house wall (to protect you against radiation coming from  that direction.)
If  possible, make the shelter area deeper by digging out more  earth inside  it.  Also dig some other shallow ditches, to allow rain  water  to drain away.

BOATS AS IMPROVISED SHELTERS

If no better fallout protection is available, a boat with an enclosed cabin  could be used. However, in addition to emergency supplies  such  as food, drinking water and battery-powered radio, you should have aboard the items  you would need (a broom, bucket, or pump-and-hose) to sweep off  or flush off any fallout particles that might collect on the boat.

The  boat  should  be anchored or cruised slowly at  least  200  feet offshore,  where  the water is at least 5 feet deep.  This  distance  from shore would protect you from radioactive fallout particles that had fallen on  the  nearby  land.  A 5-foot depth would  absorb  the  radiation  from particles falling into the water and settling on the bottom.
If particles drift down onto the boat, stay inside the cabin most  of the  time. Go outside now and then, and sweep or flush off  any  particles that have collected on the boat.

Chapter 5
SHELTER LIVING

SUPPLIES FOR FALLOUT SHELTERS

People  gathered  in public and private fallout  shelters  to  escape fallout  radiation  after a nuclear attack would have to  stay  there-  at least part of the time- for a week or two.

During  this time they would need certain supplies and  equipment  in order  to stay alive and well, and to cope with emergency situations  that might occur in their shelters.

This  chapter tells you what supplies and equipment to take with  you if  you go t a public fallout shelter, and what items you should  keep  on hand if you plan to use a family fallout shelter at home.

To  augment the supplies of water and food normally found in or  near large  structures  where public fallout shelter is  usually  located,  you should plan to take the following with you:

-Special  medications  or foods required by members of  your  family, such as insulin, heart tablets, dietetic food, or baby food.
-A blanket for each family member.
-A  battery-powered radio, flashlight, extra batteries for each,  and
writing materials for taking notes on information given over the radio.
-As  much potable liquids (water, fruit and vegetable  juices,  etc.)
and ready-to-eat food as you can carry to the shelter.

STOCKS FOR A HOME SHELTER

If you  intend  to use a home fallout  shelter, you should gather together now all the things you and your family would need for 2  weeks, even though you probably wouldn't have to remain inside the shelter  for the entire period.

All  these items need not be stocked in your home shelter area.  They can be stored elsewhere in or around your house, as long as you could find them easily and  move them to your shelter area quickly in a time of emergency.

*THE ABSOLUTE NECESSITIES. There are a few things you must have. They are  water, food, sanitation supplies, and any special medicines or foods needed by family members such as insulin, heart tablets,  dietetic  food, and baby food.

*THE  COMPLETE LIST. In addition to the absolute  necessities,  there are  other important items. Some of them may be needed to save  lives.  At the least, they will be helpful to you. Here is a list of all major items- both essential and desirable.

WATER.  This is even more important than food. Each person will need at least one quart of water per day. Some will need more. As explained on pages 39  and  40, do not ration drinking water. Store it  in plastic containers, or in bottles or cans. All should have tight stoppers. Part of your water  supply might be "trapped" water in the pipes  of your home plumbing system, and part of it might be in the form of bottled or  canned beverages,  fruit or vegetable juices, or milk. A  water-purifying  agent (either water-purifying  tablets, or 2 percent tincture of iodine, or a liquid household chlorine bleach) should also be stored, in case you  need to purify any cloudy or "suspicious" water that may contain bacteria.

FOOD.  Enough food should be kept on hand to feed all  shelter occupants for 14 days, including special foods needed by infants,  elderly persons, and those on limited diets. Most people in shelter can get along on about half as much as usual and can survive without food for  several days if  necessary. If possible, store canned or sealed package  foods, preferably  those not requiring refrigeration or cooking. These should be replaced  periodically. Here is a table showing the suggested  replacement periods, in months, for some of the types of food suitable to store  for emergency use.  (This table, and other suggestions  concerning  emergency supplies  of  food and water, is contained in "Family Food  Stockpile  for Survival," Home and Garden Bulletin No. 77, available to individuals free, from  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Office  of  Communications, Washington, D.C. 20250.)

SANITATION  SUPPLIES. Since you may not be able to use your regular bathroom during a period of emergency, you should keep on hand  these sanitation supplies: A metal container with a tight-fitting lid to use  as an emergency toilet; one or two large garbage cans with covers (for human wastes and  garbage);  plastic bags to line the toilet container; disinfectant; toilet paper; soap; wash cloths and towels; a pail or basin; and sanitary napkins.

MEDICINES  AND FIRST AID SUPPLIES. This should include any medicines being regularly taken, or likely to be needed, by family members. First aid supplies should include all those found in a good first aid kit (bandages, antiseptics, etc.) plus all the items normally kept  in a  well-stocked home medicine chest (aspirin, thermometer, baking soda, petroleum jelly, etc.). A good first aid handbook is also recommended.

INFANT SUPPLIES. Families with babies should keep on hand a two-week stock of infant supplies such as canned milk or  baby  formula,  disposable diapers, bottles and nipples, rubber sheeting, blankets and baby clothing. Because  water for washing might be limited, baby clothing and bedding should be stored in larger-than-normal quantities.

COOKING AND EATING UTENSILS. Emergency supplies should include  pots, pans,  knives, forks, spoons, cups, napkins, paper towels, measuring  cup, bottle opener, can opener, and pocket knife. If possible, disposable items
should be stored. A heat source also might be helpful, such as an electric hot plate (for use if power is available), or a camp stove or  canned-heat stove  (in case power is shut off). However, if a stove is used  indoors, adequate ventilation is needed.

CLOTHING. Several changes of clean clothing- especially undergarments and socks or stockings- should be ready for shelter use, in case water for washing should be scarce.

BEDDING. Blankets are the most important items of bedding that would be needed in a shelter, but occupants probably would be more comfortable if they also had available pillows, sheets, and air mattresses or sleeping bags.

FIRE  FIGHTING  EQUIPMENT.  Simple  fire  fighting tools, and the knowledge  of how to use them, may be very useful.  A  hand-pumped fire extinguisher of the inexpensive, 5-gallon, water type is preferred. Carbon tetrachloride  and  other vaporizing-liquid type extinguishers are not recommended  for use in small enclosed spaces, because of the  danger  of fumes. Other useful fire equipment for home use includes  buckets  filled with sand, a ladder, and a garden hose.

GENERAL  EQUIPMENT AND TOOLS. The essential items in this list are a battery-powered  radio and a flashlight or lantern, with spare batteries the radio might be your only link with the outside world, and  you might have to depend on it for all your information and instructions, especially for advice on when to leave shelter. Include writing materials for taking notes  on information given over the radio. Other useful items: a  shovel, broom, axe, crowbar, kerosene lanterns, short  rubber hose for siphoning, coil of half-inch rope at least 25  feet long, coil of wire, hammer, pliers, screwdriver, wrench, nails and screws.

MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS. In addition to such practical items as matches, candles,  and civil defense instructions, some personal convenience  items could be brought into the home shelter if space  permits.  These might include  books  and magazines, a clock, and calendar, playing  cards,  and hobby materials,  a sewing kit, and toiletries  such as  toothbrushes, cosmetics, and shaving supplies.

WATER, FOOD, AND SANITATION IN A SHELTER

At all  times  and under all conditions,  human  beings must have sufficient  water,  adequate food and proper sanitation in order  to stay alive and  healthy. With people living in a shelter- even for a  week  or two- water and food might be scarce, and it would be difficult to maintain normal sanitary conditions.  Water and food supplies would have to be "managed" - that is, kept clean, and used carefully by each person in the shelter. Sanitation also would have to be managed and controlled,  perhaps by  setting  up emergency toilets and rules to insure that they are used properly.

missing segment

de the risk area, but within a reasonable distance, go there as  soon as  possible.  As  relocation  gets  underway,  it  may  be  difficult  or impossible to get to the location of your choice.

*If you do not have a definite location to go to...

You  should proceed to the nearest reception area indicated  by  your government officials.

*If you are a key worker...

If  you have been designated by your employer as a key worker  in  an essential  industry,  you  may be expected to go with  your  family  to  a reserved nearby reception area. You would probably not be expected to stay in  location at your high-risk area, but you would probably commute  daily to  work from your assigned reception area. Protection would  be  provided for  you while in your high-risk location, and you would be able  to  join your family after work.

HOW TO GET THERE

If  you have a car, truck, camper, or recreational vehicle, drive  it to  your  designated reception area, using the route given by  your  local officials. Remember that several days should be available  for  relocating all those living in the high-risk area. Take the time you need to  prepare and pack.

Relocation routes will be designated to assure that residents will be equally  distributed  among the reception counties so that there  will  be adequate food and lodging for you and your family. If you use a route  not assigned  to  you,  you may find the reception area  you  have  chosen  is filled,  and  there  is  no room or accommodations  for  you.  Follow  the relocation  route  to  the reception county as  indicated  by  your  local officials.  Wherever possible, police officers will be on duty  to  advise and direct you. Obey all instructions by law enforcement officers.
If  you get caught in a traffic jam, turn off your engine, remain  in your car, listen for official instructions, and be patient. Do not get out of  the  line to find an alternate route. All routes will be  crowded.  If traffic  is  stopped for an hour or more, do not leave your  car  for  any reason.

Be sure you have adequate gasoline when you start out. DO NOT BUY ANY MORE GAS THAN YOU WILL NEED. Gasoline will be in short supply and will  be needed  to provide you with food and other essential supplies. But if  you run out of gas or have other mechanical difficulties, move your car to the side  of  the  road out of traffic lanes to  allow  traffic  to  continue. Service  to stalled autos will be available during the evacuation  period. Leave  your  hood  up  as a sign that you are stalled,  and  you  will  be assisted as soon as possible.

If you have no private means of transportation, public transportation will probably be provided to move you to your reception area. If  you  are  physically  unable  to  get  to  transportation, make arrangements to be picked up and be transported to your reception area.

WHAT TO DO WHEN YOU ARRIVE

When  you reach a major community or town in your assigned  reception county, proceed immediately to your assigned reception area.

At  the center you will register yourself and your family.  Reception county officials will make every effort to assign you to a place to sleep, in  a  larger  building  or possibly with a  private  household  that  has volunteered to share their home.

Lodging in Public Buildings...
If you are assigned to a public building such as a school, church, or other  temporary  lodging center, do everything you can to  help  maintain order  and  sanitary living conditions. Elect a leader  and  form  working groups to help local officials and volunteers with such tasks as:

• Cooking and feeding services
• Providing water supply
• Cleaning up trash and garbage
• Maintaining order
• Assuring quiet during sleeping hours
• Organizing recreation and religious activities
• Arranging medical care for the sick and assisting the handicapped

HOW TO KEEP INFORMED

Listen to the radio for information and advice from national,  State, and local officials. You will be told when you should return home. DO  NOT RETURN  HOME BEFORE YOU ARE ADVISED TO DO SO. It is impossible to  predict how long you will have to stay in the reception area. It could be only for a few days or could last for a week or more.
If  a  nuclear  attack should occur and  the  Emergency  Broadcasting System  (EBS) is in operation, a number of radio stations will  remain  on the air to provide emergency information. All other radio stations will stop broadcasting. Those emergency  stations remaining  on the air will provide you with information  and  instructions that you will need.

FINDING FALLOUT SHELTER IN HOST AREAS

Many larger buildings have been designed as public fallout  shelters. They are marked by signs like this:

[yellow-and-black sign with trefoil radiation symbol on top and  words "Fallout Shelter" with directional arrows on bottom]

Host  areas  usually  do  not have  enough  shelters  for  their  own residents.  Consequently, it will be necessary for many residents of  host counties  AND  FOR  MOST CITY EVACUEES to upgrade  to  protection  in  the building  they  are to stay in or to try to improvise  their  own  fallout protection.

Residents  of  host  areas are encouraged to share  their  homes  and shelter  facilities  as far as possible. Both the residents  of  the  host areas  and the city evacuees will have to WORK HARD FOR A DAY OR  MORE  to construct  improvised shelters to protect against fallout. In  this  case, radiation  protection  would  be  "cheap  as  dirt."  Up grading existing structures  by piling earth outside them can be done by adding an  average of one cubic yard of earth for each 10 square feet of shelter space to  be developed (more for some buildings, less for others.) Moving a cubic  yard of  earth is not easy- it's about 80 to 100 buckets full- but can be  done if everyone works for their survival.

Generally, shelter in host areas can be found in the following:
*Buildings which have been identified in the National Shelter Survey and marked with a shelter sign.
*Home basements
*Buildings which can be upgraded to improve the fallout protection by placing earth overhead and against the walls.
*Caves, mines, and tunnels.
*Expedient  fallout shelters involving digging of trenches,  movement of  earth, or use of materials at hand, such as tables, doors, bricks,  or books.

For  specific  information  on improvising  fallout  protection,  see Chapter 4, "Improvising Fallout Shelters."

Chapter 8 
EMERGENCY CARE OF THE SICK AND INJURED

A  nuclear attack on the United States would cause great  numbers  of casualties,  and  there  would be fewer  doctors,  nurses,  and  hospitals available  to  care  for  them. Even in areas  where  no  nuclear  weapons exploded,  radioactive  fallout  could prevent  doctors  and  nurses  from reaching sick or injured persons for a considerable period of time. People would  have  to help each other during the emergency, and  would  have  to depend on their own knowledge of first aid and emergency medical care. 

Both  adults and teenagers can acquire these valuable skills  now  by taking free courses that are offered in many communities, such as a  First Aid course.

The following information is no substitute for one of these  courses. The basic guidance may save lives during a nuclear emergency, however,  by helping  untrained  persons  take  care  of  the  sick  and  injured  when professional medical assistance may not be immediately available.

GENERAL RULES FOR ANY MEDICAL EMERGENCY

1.  First of all, DO NO HARM.  Often,  well-meaning but untrained persons  worsen the injury or illness in their  attempts to help.  Get competent  medical assistance, if possible. Do not assume  responsibility for a patient if you can get the help of a doctor, nurse, or experienced first-aid worker. But if no one better qualified is available, take charge yourself.
2.  LOOK FOR STOPPAGE OF BREATHING, AND FOR SERIOUS BLEEDING.  These are the two most life-threatening conditions you can do something  about. They demand IMMEDIATE treatment (see pages 59 and 62).
3.  PREVENT SHOCK, OR TREAT IT. Shock, a serious condition of  acute circulatory  failure,  usually accompanies a severe or painful  injury,  a serious loss of blood, or a severe emotional upset. If you EXPECT shock, and take prompt action, you can prevent it or lessen its severity.  This may save the patient's life. (Treatment of shock is discussed on page 63.)
4. DON'T MOVE THE PATIENT IMMEDIATELY. Unless there is REAL DANGER of the patient receiving further injury where he is, he should not be moved until  breathing is restored, bleeding is stopped, and  suspected broken bones are splinted.
5.  KEEP  CALM, AND REASSURE THE PATIENT. Keep him lying down and comfortably warm, but do not apply heat to his body, or make him sweat. 
6.  NEVER ATTEMPT TO GIVE LIQUIDS TO AN UNCONSCIOUS PERSON. If he is not able to swallow, he may choke to death or drown. Also, don't give him any liquids to drink if he has an abdominal injury.

IF THE PATIENT HAS STOPPED BREATHING

Quick  action  is  required. You must get air into  his  lungs  again immediately  or he may die. The best and simplest way of doing this is  to use mouth-to-mouth artificial respiration. Here is how to do it.

1. Place the patient on his back. Loosen his collar.
2. Open his mouth and use your fingers to remove any food or  foreign matter, If he has false teeth or removable dental bridges, take them out.
3. Tilt the patient's head back so that his chin points upward.  Lift his lower jaw from beneath and behind so that it juts out. This will  move his tongue away from the back of his throat, so it does not block the  air passage  to  his  lungs.  Placing a pillow or  something  else  under  his shoulders  will help get his head into the right position.  Some  patients will start breathing as soon as you take these steps, and no further  help
is necessary.
4. Open your mouth as wide as possible, and place it tightly over the patient's  mouth,  so his mouth is completely covered by yours.  With  one hand, pinch his nostrils shut. With your other hand, hold his lower jaw in a thrust-forward position  and keep  his head tilted back. With a baby or small child, place  your  mouth over both his nose and mouth, making a tight seal.
5.  Blow  a  good  lungful of air  into  an  adult  patient's  mouth, continuing  to keep his head tilted back and his jaw jutting out  so  that the  air  passage is kept open. (Air can be blown through  an  unconscious person's teeth, even though they may be clenched tightly together.)  Watch his chest as you blow. When you see his chest rise, you will know that you are getting air into his lungs.
6. Remove your mouth from the patient's mouth, and listen for him  to breathe out the air you breathed into him. You also may feel his breath on your cheek and see his chest sink as he exhales.
7. Continue your breathing for the patient. If he is an adult, blow a good  breath  into his mouth every 5 seconds, or 12 times  a  minute,  and listen for him to breathe it back out again. Caution: If the patient is an infant  or small child, blow small puffs of air into him about 20 times  a minute. You may rupture his lung if you blow in too much air at one  time. Watch  his chest rise to make sure you are giving him the right amount  of air with each puff.
8.  If you are not getting air into the patient's lungs, or if he  is not breathing out the air you blew into him, first make sure that his head is tilted back and his jaw is jutting out in the proper position. Then use your  fingers to make sure nothing in his mouth or throat  is  obstructing the air passage to his lungs. If this does not help, then turn him on  his side  and  strike  him sharply with the palm of your  hand  several  times between  the shoulder blades. This should dislodge any obstruction in  the air  passage. Then place him again on his back, with his head tilted  back
and  his jaw jutting out, and resume blowing air into his mouth.  If  this doesn't work, try closing his mouth and blowing air through his nose  into his lungs.
9. If you wish to avoid placing your mouth directly on the  patient's face, you may hold a cloth (handkerchief, gauze, or other porous material) over  his  mouth and breathe through the cloth. But don't  waste  precious time looking for a cloth if you don't have one. 
10.  Important: Even if the patient does not respond,  continue  your efforts for 1 hour or longer, or wait until you are completely sure he  is dead. If possible, have this confirmed by at least one other person.

TO STOP SERIOUS BLEEDING

1.  Apply  firm, even pressure to the wound with  a  dressing,  clean cloth,  or sanitary napkin. If you don't have any of these, use your  bare hand  until you can get something better. Remembers, you must  keep  blood from  running  out  of  the patient's body. Loss of 1  or  2  quarts  will seriously endanger his life.
2.  Hold the dressing in place with your hand until you  can  bandage the  dressing  in  place. In case of an arm or leg wound,  make  sure  the bandage  is not so tight as to cut off circulation; and raise the  arm  or leg above the level of the patient's heart. (But if the arm or leg appears broken, be sure to splint it first.)
3. Treat the patient for shock.
4.  If blood soaks through the dressing, do not remove the  dressing. Apply more dressings.
5.  SPECIAL ADVICE ON TOURNIQUETS: Never use a tourniquet unless  you cannot  stop  excessive, life-threatening bleeding by  any  other  method. Using a tourniquet increases the chances that the arm or leg will have  to be  amputated  later. If you are forced to use a tourniquet  to  keep  the patient from bleeding to death (for example, when a hand or foot has  been accidentally cut off), follow these instructions carefully:
-Place the tourniquet as close to the wound as possible, between  the wound and the patient's heart.
-After  the  tourniquet  has been applied, do not  permit  it  to  be loosened  (even temporarily, or even though the bleeding has  stopped)  by anyone  except a physician, who can control the bleeding by other  methods and replace the blood that the patient has lost.
-Get a physician to treat the patient as soon as possible.

PREVENTING AND TREATING SHOCK

Being  "in  shock" means that a person's circulatory  system  is  not working properly, and not enough blood is getting to the vital centers  of his brain and spinal cord.

These  are  the  symptoms of shock: The patient's pulse  is  weak  or rapid, or he may have no pulse that you can find. His skin may be pale  or blue,  cold, or moist. His breathing may be shallow or irregular.  He  may have chills. He may be thirsty. He may get sick at his stomach and vomit.

A person can be "in shock" whether he is conscious or unconscious.

Important: All seriously injured persons should be treated for shock, even  though  they appear normal and alert.
Shock may cause death  if  not treated  properly, even though the injuries which brought on  shock  might not  be serious enough to cause death. In fact, persons may go into  shock without having any physical injuries.

Here is how to treat any person who may be in shock:
1. Keep him lying down and keep him from chilling, but do not apply a hot water bottle or other heat to his body. Also, loosen his clothing. 
2. Keep his head a little lower than his legs and hips. But if he has a head or chest injury, or has difficulty in breathing, keep his head  and shoulders slightly lower than the rest of his body.
3.  Encourage  him  to  drink  fluids if  he  is  conscious  and  not nauseated,  and if he does not have abdominal injuries. Every  15  minutes give  him a half-glass of this solution until he no longer wants  it:  One teaspoonful  of salt and a half-tablespoonful of baking soda to one  quart of water.
4. Do not give him alcohol.

BROKEN BONES

Any  break in a bone is called a fracture. If you think a person  may have a fracture, treat it as though it were one. Otherwise, you may  cause further  injury.  For example, if an arm or leg is injured  and  bleeding, splint it as well as bandage it. 

With  any fracture, first look for bleeding and control it. Keep  the patient comfortably warm and quiet, preferably lying down. If you have  an ice  bag,  apply  it to the fracture to ease the pain.  Do  not  move  the patient (unless his life is in danger where he is) without first  applying a  splint or otherwise immobilizing the bone that may be fractured.  Treat the patient for shock.

A  FRACTURED  ARM  OR  LEG should be  straightened  out  as  much  as possible,  preferably by having 2 persons gently stretch it into a  normal position.  Then it should be "splinted"- that is, fastened to a  board  or something  else,  to prevent motion and keep the ends of the  broken  bone together.  As  a  splint, use a board, a trimmed branch  from  a  tree,  a broomstick,  an  umbrella,  a roll of newspaper, or  anything  else  rigid enough  to  keep  the arm or leg straight. Fasten the arm or  leg  to  the splint with bandages, strips of cloth, handkerchiefs, neckties, or  belts. After splinting, keep the injured arm or leg a little higher than the rest of the patient's body. From time to time, make sure that the splint is not too tight, since the arm or leg may swell, and the blood circulation might be  shut off. If the broken bone is sticking out through the skin but  the exposed part of it is clean, allow it to slip back naturally  under  the skin (but don't push it in) when the limb  is  being straightened. However, if the exposed part of the bone is dirty, cover  it with a clean cloth and bandage the wound to stop the bleeding. Then splint the  arm  or leg without trying to straighten it out, and try  to  find  a doctor or nurse to treat the patient.

A  FRACTURED COLLARBONE should also be prevented from  moving,  until the patient can get professional medical attention. It can be  immobilized by placing the arm on that side in a sling and then binding the arm  close
to the body.

A  FRACTURED  RIB should be suspected if the patient has  received  a chest  injury  or  if he has pain when he moves his  chest,  breathes,  or coughs.  Strap the injured side of his chest with 2-inch adhesive tape  if available, or with a cloth bandage or towel wrapped around and around  his entire chest.

Fractured  bones in the NECK OR BACK are very serious,  because  they may injure the patient's spinal cord and paralyze him or even kill him. He should  not  be moved until a doctor comes (or a person trained  in  first aid),  unless  it is absolutely necessary to move him to  prevent  further injury. If a person with a back injury has to be moved, he should be place gently  on his back on a stiff board, door, or stretcher. His head,  back, and legs should be kept in a straight line at all times.

A  person  with a neck injury should be moved gently with  his  head, neck, and shoulders kept in the same position they were when he was found. His neck should not be allowed to bend when he is being moved.

BURNS

Non-serious  or  superficial  (first  degree)  burns  should  not  be covered-  in  fact,  nothing need be done for them. However,  if  a  first degree  burn covers a large area of the body, the patient should be  given fluids to drink as mentioned in item 2 following. 

Some  of the radioactive fallout on exposed skin may cause burns  for which the same action should be taken as for normal heat burns. 

The  most  important  things to do about  serious  (second  or  third degree) burns are: (a) Treat the patient for shock, (b) Prevent infection, and (c) Relieve pain. These specific actions should be taken:

1. Keep the patient lying down, with his head a little lower than his legs  and  hips  unless he has a head or chest wound,  or  has  difficulty breathing.

2.  Have him drink a half-glass every 15 minutes of  a  salt-and-soda solution (one teaspoonful of salt and a half-teaspoonful of baking soda to a  quart of water). Give him additional plain water to drink if  he  wants it.

3. Cover the burned area with a dry, sterile gauze dressing. if gauze is not available, use a clean cloth, towel, or pad.

4.  With soap and water, wash the area around the burn (not the  burn itself)  for a distance of several inches, wiping away from the burn.  The dressing  will help prevent surface washings from getting into the  burned area.

5. Use a bandage to hold the dry dressing firmly in place against the burned  area.  This will keep moving air from reaching the burn  and  will lessen the pain. Leave dressings and bandage in place as long as possible.

6. If adjoining surfaces of skin are burned, separate them with gauze or cloth to keep them from sticking together (such as between toes or fingers, ears and head, arms and chest).

7.  If  the burn was caused by a chemical- or  by  fallout  particles sticking  to the skin or hair- wash the chemical or the fallout  particles away  with  generous  amounts  of plain water,  then  treat  the  burn  as described above.

What NOT to do about burns:

-Don't  pull  clothing  over  the  burned  area  (cut  it  away, if necessary).
-Don't try to remove any pieces of cloth, or bits of dirt or  debris, that may be sticking to the burn.
-Don't  try to clean the burn; don't use iodine or other  antiseptics on it; and don't open any blisters that may form on it.
-Don't  use grease, butter, ointment, salve, petroleum jelly, or  any type of medication on severe burns. Keeping them dry is best.
-Don't  breathe on a burn, and don't touch it with anything except  a clean dressing.
-Don't change the dressings that were initially applied to the  burn, until absolutely necessary. Dressings may be left in place for a week,  if necessary.

RADIATION SICKNESS

Radiation  sickness  is  caused by the invisible rays  given  off  by particles of radioactive fallout. If a person has received a large dose of radiation in a short period of time- generally, less than a week- he  will become seriously ill and probably will die. But if he has received only  a small or medium dose, his body will repair itself and he will get well. No special clothing can protect a person from gamma radiation, and no special medicines can protect him or cure him of radiation sickness. 

Symptoms  of radiation sickness may not be noticed for several  days. The  early  symptoms  are lack of  appetite,  nausea,  vomiting,  fatigue, weakness,  and headache. Later, the patient may have sore mouth,  loss  of hair, bleeding gums, bleeding under the skin, and diarrhea. But these same symptoms  can  be  caused  by other diseases, and  not  everyone  who  has radiation sickness shows all these symptoms, or shows them all at once.

PART TWO
MAJOR NATURAL DISASTERS

Disasters and other emergencies affecting large areas and many people can sometimes develop quickly. Flash floods and earthquakes, for  example, can strike with little or no advance warning.

Other  types of disasters and emergencies are preceded by a  build-up period  that provides more time for taking effective protective  measures. For  example, the paths of a hurricane are traced for days, and people  in likely  danger  areas  are  notified several hours  before  the  storm  is expected  to strike land. In many cases, floods can also be  predicted  to provide considerable warning time for people in the danger areas. Even  in cases of tornadoes, the forecast of weather conditions frequently  permits some warning of possible disaster. Winter storms, blizzards, heavy  snows, ice  storms,  or  freezing  rains-  also  may  pose  hazards  of  disaster proportions which lend themselves to reasonable prediction. 

Some  of these disasters or emergencies are more likely to  occur  in certain  parts  of the country. For example, hurricanes  are  more  common along the Gulf and Atlantic Coast States, and tornadoes are more  frequent in  mid western  and southern States. Yet, no area is  entirely  free  from possible disasters or emergencies of one type or another.

Many  of the actions recommended in Part 1 of this handbook  to  help you  prepare for and live through a nuclear attack- such as  learning  the warning signals, stocking emergency supplies, taking a course in emergency skills,  and  knowing how to fight fires at home- also would help  you  in case a major natural disaster occurs in your area.
Part  II of this handbook is intended to help you prepare  for  those natural  disasters  that may occur in your area, and tell  you  the  right actions to take if they occur.

Chapter 1
GENERAL GUIDANCE

There are certain things you can learn and do that will help you  get ready for, and cope with, almost any type of emergency.

Perhaps  the most basic thing to remember is to keep calm.  This  may mean the difference between life and death. In many disasters, people have been  killed or injured needlessly because they took  thoughtless  actions when they should have done something else- or or done nothing at all  just then.

In a time of emergency, taking proper action may save your life. Take time  to  think, and then take the considered action  that  the  situation calls  for. Usually, this will be the action you have planned in  advance, or the action you are instructed to take by responsible authorities.

Here  is  other  guidance that applies to  most  types  of  peacetime emergencies.

WARNING

LEARN  YOUR COMMUNITY'S WARNING SIGNALS. In most  communities  having outdoor warning systems, the Attack Warning Signal is a wavering sound  on the  sirens,  or  a series of short blasts on whistles,  horns,  or  other
devices.  This signal will be used only to warn of an attack  against  the United States.

Many communities also are using an Attention or Alert Signal, usually a  3- to 5- minute steady blast to get the attention of their people in  a time  of threatened or impending peacetime emergency. In most places,  the Attention or Alert Signal means that people should turn on their radio  or television set to hear important emergency information being broadcast. 

You  should find out now, before any emergency occurs,  what  warning signals are being used in your community, what they sound like, what  they mean, and what actions you should take when you hear them.

Also,  whenever a major storm or other peacetime disaster  threatens, keep  your radio or television set turned on to hear weather  reports  and forecasts (issued by the National Weather Service of the National  Oceanic and  Atmospheric Administration), as well as other information and  advice that may be broadcast by your local government.

When  you  are warned of an emergency, get your  information  on  the radio  or television. Use your telephone only to report  important  events (such  as  fires,  flash  floods,  or  tornado  sightings)  to  the  local authorities. If you tie up the telephone lines simply to get  information, you may prevent emergency calls from being completed.

EMERGENCY SUPPLIES

A  major disaster of almost any kind may interfere with  your  normal supplies  of  food,  water, heat, and other  day-to-day  necessities.  You should keep on hand, in or around your home, a stock of emergency supplies sufficient to meet your needs for a few days or preferably for a week.

If you stayed at home during the disaster, these supplies would  help you live through the period of emergency without hardships. If you had  to evacuate  your  home  and  move  temporarily  to  another  location,  your emergency supplies could be taken with you and used en route or after  you arrived at the new location (where regular supplies may not be available). Even  if you only had to move to an emergency shelter station set up by  a local  agency, these supplies might be helpful to you, or make  your  stay easier.

The  most  important items to keep on hand are water  (preferably  in plastic  jugs  or other stoppered containers);  canned  or  sealed-package foods  that  do not require refrigeration or heat for  cooking;  medicines needed by family members, and a first aid kit; blankets or sleeping  bags, flashlights  or lanterns, a battery-powered radio; and perhaps  a  covered container  to  use as an emergency toilet. In addition, an  automobile  in good operating condition with an ample supply of gasoline may be necessary in case you have to leave your home.

In those parts of the country subject to hurricanes or floods, it  is also  wise  to keep on hand certain emergency materials you  may  need  to protect your home from wind and water- such as plywood sheeting or  lumber to board up your windows and doors, and plastic sheeting or tarpaulins  to protect furniture and appliances.

FIRE PROTECTION AND FIRE FIGHTING

Fires  are a special hazard in time of disaster. They may start  more readily, and the help of the fire department may not be available quickly. Therefore, it is essential that you:
1.  Follow  the  fire  prevention rules given  on  page  45,  and  be especially careful not to start fires.
2. Know how to put out small fires yourself. (See pages 45 to 48.)
3. Have on hand simple tools and equipment needed for fire  fighting. (See page 38.)
4. Install smoke or heat detectors to save lives and protect property by detecting fires promptly.

AFTER A NATURAL DISASTER

Use extreme caution in entering or working in buildings that may have been  damaged  or weakened by the disaster, as they may  collapse  without warning. Also, there may be gas leaks or electrical short circuits. 

Don't  take lanterns, torches, or lighted cigarettes  into  buildings that  have been flooded or otherwise damaged, since there may  be  leaking gas lines or flammable material present.

Stay  away from fallen or damaged electric wires, which may still  be dangerous.

Check  for  leaking gas pipes in your home. Do this  by  smell  only- don't  use  matches or candles. If you smell gas, do this:

(1)  Open  all windows and doors, 
(2) Turn off the main gas valve at the meter, 
(3) Leave the  house immediately, 
(4) Notify the gas company or the police  or  fire department, 
(5) Don't re-enter the house until you are told it is safe  to do so.

If any of your electrical appliances are wet, first turn off the main power  switch  in your house, then unplug the wet appliance, dry  it  out, reconnect it, and finally, turn on the main power switch. (Caution:  Don't do  any of these things while you are wet or standing in water.) Is  fuses blow  when the electric power is restored, turn off the main power  switch again and then inspect for short circuits in your home wiring, appliances, and equipment.

Check  your  food and water supplies before using  them.  Foods  that require  refrigeration may be spoiled if electric power has been  off  for some time. Also, don't eat food that has come in contact with flood  waters.  Be sure to follow the instructions  of  local  authorities concerning the use of food and water supplies.

If  needed, get food, clothing, medical care or shelter at Red  Cross stations or from local government authorities.

Stay away from disaster areas. Sightseeing could interfere with first aid or rescue work, and may be dangerous as well.

Don't  drive  unless  necessary, and drive with  caution.  Watch  for hazards to yourself and others, and report them to local authorities.

Write, telegraph, or telephone your relatives, after the emergency is over,  so  they will know you are safe. Otherwise  local  authorities  may waste  time  locating you- or if you have evacuated to a  safer  location, they may not be able to find you. (However, do not tie up the phone  lines if they are still needed for official emergency calls.)
Do not pass on rumors or exaggerated reports of damage.

Follow  the advice and instructions of your local government on  ways to help yourself and your community recover from the emergency.

Chapter 2
FLOODS

The  National  Oceanic and Atmospheric  Administration,  through  its Weather Service River Forecast Centers and River District offices,  issues flood  forecasts and warnings when rainfall is enough to cause  rivers  to overflow  their  banks  or when melting snow  combines  with  rainfall  to produce similar effects.

Flood  warnings are forecasts of impending floods, and are  given  to you by radio and television and through local government emergency forces. The  warning  message  tells the expected  severity  of  flooding  (minor, moderate,  or major), the affected river, and when and where the  flooding will begin. Careful preparations and prompt response will assure  personal safety and reduce property loss.

BEFORE THE FLOOD

1.  Find out how many feet your property is above or  below  possible flood  levels  so  when  predicted flood levels  are  broadcast,  you  can determine if you may be flooded.
2.  Keep  a  stock  of food which  requires  little  cooking  and  no refrigeration. Regular electric service may be disrupted.
3.  Keep  a  portable  radio,  emergency  cooking equipment, and flashlights in working order.
4.  Keep  first aid supplies and any medicines needed by  members  of your family.
5. Keep your automobile fueled. If electric power is cut off, filling stations may not be able to operate pumps for several days.
6.  Keep  materials  like sandbags, plywood,  plastic  sheeting,  and lumber handy for emergency waterproofing. But if flooding is imminent,  do not stack sandbags around the outside walls of your house to keep flood waters out of your basement. Water seeping downward through the earth  (either  beyond the sandbags or over them) may collect  around  the basement  walls and under the floor, creating pressure that  could  damage the walls or else raise the entire basement and cause it to "float" out of the ground. In most cases, it is better to permit the flood waters to flow freely into the basement (or flood the basement yourself with clean water, if you feel sure it will be flooded anyway). This will equalize the  water pressure  on the outside of the basement walls and floors, and thus  avoid structural damage to the foundation and the house.
7.  Store drinking water in closed, clean containers.  Water  service may be interrupted.
8. If flooding is likely, and time permits, move essential items  and furniture  to  upper  floors  of your  house.  Disconnect  any  electrical appliances  that  can't be moved- but don't touch them if you are  wet  or standing in water.

EVACUATION

If you are warned to evacuate your home and move to another  location temporarily,  there  are certain things to remember and do. Here  are  the more important ones:

*FOLLOW THE INSTRUCTIONS AND ADVICE OF YOUR LOCAL GOVERNMENT. If  you are  told to evacuate, do so promptly. If you are instructed to move to  a certain  location,  go there- don't go anywhere else.  If  certain  travel routes  are specified or recommended, use those routes rather than  trying to  find  your own. (It will help if you have previously  become  familiar with  the  routes  likely to be used.) If you are told to  shut  off  your water, gas, or electric service before leaving home, do so. Also find  out on  the  radio  where  emergency housing and  mass  feeding  stations  are located, in case you need to use them.

*SECURE  YOUR HOME BEFORE LEAVING. If you have time, and if you  have not  received  other instructions from your local government,  you  should take the following actions before leaving your home:

-Bring  outside  possessions  inside  the house,  or  tie  them  down
securely.  This  includes outdoor furniture, garbage cans,  garden  tools,
signs and other movable objects that might be blown or washed away.
-As  already suggested, move furniture and other movable  objects  to
the  upper  floor of your house. Disconnect any electrical  appliances  or
equipment  that  cannot be moved- but don't touch them if you are  wet  or
standing in water.
-Lock  house  doors  and  windows. Park your car  in  the  garage  or
driveway,  close the windows, and lock it (unless you are driving to  your
new temporary location).

*TRAVEL WITH CARE.  If  your  local government is arranging transportation for you, precautions will be taken for your safety. But  if you are walking or driving your own car to another location, keep in  mind these things:

-Leave early enough so as not to be marooned by flooded roads.
-Make sure you have enough gasoline in your car.
-Follow recommended routes.
-As you  travel,  keep  listening  to  the  radio  for additional
information and instructions from your local government.
-Watch  for washed-out or undermined roadways, earth  slides,  broken
sewer  or  water  mains, loose or downed electric wires,  and  falling  or
fallen objects.
-Watch out for areas where rivers or streams may flood suddenly.
-Don't  try  to  cross a stream or a pool of  water  unless  you  are
certain that the water will not be over your knees, or above the middle of
your  car's  wheels, all the way across. Sometimes the water will  hide  a
bridge or a part of the road that has been washed out. If you decide it is
safe to drive across it, put your car in low gear and drive very slowly to 
avoid splashing water into your engine and causing  it  to stop.  Also, 
remember that your brakes may not work well after the  wheels of  your
car have been in deep water. Try them out a few times  when  you
reach the other side.

AFTER THE FLOOD

1. Do not use fresh food that has come in contact with flood waters.
2. Test drinking water for potability. Wells should be pumped out and
the water tested before drinking.
3.  Do  not visit disaster area. Your presence will  probably  hamper
rescue and other emergency operations.
4.  Do not handle live electrical equipment in wet areas.  Electrical
equipment should be checked and dried before being returned to service.
5.  Use  battery-powered  lanterns or flashlights,  not  oil  or  gas
lanterns or torches, to examine buildings. Flammables may be inside.
6. Report broken utility lines to police, fire, or other  appropriate
authorities.
7.  Keep  tuned to your radio or television station  for  advice  and
instructions  of  your local government on where to obtain  medical  care,
where  to  get assistance for such necessities as housing,  clothing,  and
food, and how to help yourself and your community to recover.

SPECIAL ADVICE ON FLASH FLOODS

In  many  areas,  unusually heavy rains may cause  quick  or  "flash" floods.  Small creeks, gullies dry streambeds, ravines, culverts, or  even low-lying  ground frequently flood quickly and endanger people,  sometimes before any warning can be given. 

National  Weather  Service  offices issue two types  of  flash  flood advisories:  a flash flood watch and a flash flood warning. A flash  flood watch means that heavy rains occurring or expected to occur may soon cause flash  flooding  in  certain areas, and citizens should be  alert  to  the possibility  of a flood emergency which will require immediate  action.  A flash flood warning means that flash flooding is occurring or imminent  on certain  streams  or  designated areas, and precautions  should  be  taken immediately by those threatened.

In  a period of heavy rains, be aware of the hazard of  flash  floods and be prepared to protect yourself against it. If you see any possibility of  a  flash flood occurring where you are, move immediately  to  a  safer location (don't wait for instructions to move) and then notify your  local authorities of the danger, so other people can be warned.

Especially during periods of heavy rainfall:

-STAY  AWAY  FROM  NATURAL STREAMBEDS, arroyos,  and  other  drainage channels during and after rainstorms. Water runs off the higher elevations very rapidly, causing the natural drainage system to overflow with rushing floodwaters and their deadly cargo of rocks, mud, smashed trees, and other debris.
-USE  YOUR MAPS. Know where you are, and whether you are  on  locally
low ground. Remember: You don't have to be at the bottom of a hill to be a
target for the dangers of flash flooding.
-KNOW  WHERE  THE  HIGH GROUND IS and how to get  there  in  a  hurry. Remember:  many roads and trails parallel existing drainage patterns,  and